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Katla volcano in Iceland produces hazardous large explosive basaltic eruptions on a regular basis, but very little quantitative data for future hazard assessments exist. Here details on fragmentation mechanism and eruption dynamics are derived from a study of deposit stratigraphy with detailed granulometry and grain morphology analysis, granulometric modeling, componentry and the new quantitative regularity index model of fragmentation mechanism. We show that magma/water interaction is important in the ash generation process, but to a variable extent. By investigating the large explosive basaltic eruptions from 1755 and 1625, we document that eruptions of similar size and magma geochemistry can have very different fragmentation dynamics. Our models show that fragmentation in the 1755 eruption was a combination of magmatic degassing and magma/water-interaction with the most magma/water-interaction at the beginning of the eruption. The fragmentation of the 1625 eruption was initially also a combination of both magmatic and phreatomagmatic processes, but magma/water-interaction diminished progressively during the later stages of the eruption. However, intense magma/water interaction was reintroduced during the final stages of the eruption dominating the fine fragmentation at the end. This detailed study of fragmentation changes documents that subglacial eruptions have highly variable interaction with the melt water showing that the amount and access to melt water changes significantly during eruptions. While it is often difficult to reconstruct the progression of eruptions that have no quantitative observational record, this study shows that integrating field observations and granulometry with the new regularity index can form a coherent model of eruption evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Unique types of rootless cones have been found both on Earth and on Mars. They have inner cones inside their summit craters, and we call them double cones (DCs) and multiple cones. Though previous studies have mentioned their existence, there are no quantitative data on their topography, distribution, or constituent materials. Having this information available as a comparative reference could promote our understanding of Martian cones. For this study, we conducted a field campaign on terrestrial cones in Myvatn, Iceland. To provide high-quality reference data about the morphology of rootless cones, we performed kinematic Global Positioning System (GPS) measurements. In the study area DCs and multiple cones are located in the vicinity of the lake (Lake Myvatn) within 15 km of a fissure vent. There are no such cones on the paleo-riverbed. In crosscut outcrops of DCs on Geitey Island, a clearly recognizable structural boundary between the inner and outer cones shows that the inner cone was formed by a separate explosion episode. We propose a probable formation scenario for DCs here. We posit that the inner cones of DCs are formed by delayed explosions due to percolation of water through the lacustrine sediments. These unique characteristics of rootless cones are useful in the interpretation of Martian cones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The 2500 BP Hverfjall eruption in northern Iceland produced pyroclastic and effusive deposits of widely different characteristics along the length of the eruptive fissure. The southern half of the fissure was located in a shallow lake, whereas the northern part of the fissure extended onto dry land. This specific setting, with overlapping periods of activity at the different vents, resulted in various mingling features between fine-grained phreatomagmatic deposits and lava flows. Here we reconstruct the course of events during this eruption based on field observations and granulometric analyses of the resulting deposits. The eruption can be divided into three main phases depending on the main depositional characteristics and vent locations. The initial phase is dominated by phreatomagmatic fall deposits which are attributed to an overall high eruption rate in a shallow lacustrine setting. The second phases involved opening of two new vents on dry ground, and deposition of scoria and lava flows. The third and final phase of the eruption is associated with a lowering of the eruption rate in the southernmost vent, with a shift in the activity from continuous uprush and fall deposits to discrete explosions and emplacement of base surges. These surges display features consistent with drying up with increasing distance from the vent, suggesting that their dynamics changed during emplacement. Most wet surges were channelized within a preexisting graben structure close to the vent, but some more dilute (i.e., dry) surges were able to flow over this obstacle and continued to flow for more than 5km away from the vent and 100m uphill before stopping. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The 5900 BP Helgafell eruption started with an intense fire-fountaining phase that deposited scoria and spatter near the vent. Spatter accumulated, agglutinated, and was subsequently emplaced as clastogenic flows. The intense initial phase was followed by effusive emplacement of tube-fed pahoehoe. This type of lava emplacement makes up the bulk of the lava field, and contains abundant inflation features such as tumuli and pressure-ridges. We measured the depths of 358 inflation clefts in tumuli and the thicknesses of the upper-vesicular crust in flow-lobes from the Helgafell lava field. Measurements of altitude between a point-source of lava tubes and the depth of inflation clefts in tumuli suggest that the magmastatic pressure affects initial tumuli formation. The overall growth of tumuli is, however, more dependent on effusion rate and collapse/clogging of individual tubes than on the magmastatic head within tubes. Three areas with abundant tumuli are recognized in the Helgafell lava field, each of which was active for at least 47 days. The average time for tumuli formation is 32 days. Using the crustal measurements of inflation features we test the hypothesis that the total eruption duration can be estimated for a pre-historic volcanic eruption. We chose the Helgafell lava field to test this hypothesis because it has (1) abundant inflation features that are easily measured, and (2) the majority of lava flows emplaced during the eruption are well exposed. Our result shows that the duration of the Helgafell eruption can be estimated to 11–12 months, yielding an average volumetric effusion rate for the Helgafell eruption of 0.05–0.06 km3/month. This result is very similar to the effusion rates for two known eruptions in the same volcanic system (i.e. the 1963–1967 Surtsey and the 1973 Eldfell eruptions, with effusion rates of 0.02 and 0.04 km3/month, respectively). Given that all three eruptions occurred within the same volcanic system and that they have similar volumetric effusion rates, we suggest that our estimated eruption duration for Helgafell is reasonable. Our results, building on the suggestion by [Hon, K., Kauhikaua, J., Denlinger, R., MacKay, K., 1994. Emplacement and inflation of pahoehoe sheet flows: observations and measurements of active lava flows on Kilauea Volcano, Hawaii. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 106, 351-370] that the duration of inflation can be estimated for individual flows by measuring inflation features, show that by combining abundant and measureable inflation features with a well-established stratigraphy the duration of an entire pre-historic eruption can be estimated. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Three types of xenoliths were collected from a 80 m high vertical section of the Sæfell tuff-cone on Heimaey, Iceland. These types are: alkali basaltic (Type I), sedimentary (Type II) and cpx-bearing basalts (Type III). They are distinct in hand specimen, thin section and geochemistry. Near the base of the eruptive succession only juvenile material and Type I xenoliths are present. The middle section has Type II xenoliths in addition to Type I. Xenoliths of Type III first appear in the uppermost xenolith-rich horizons, where they are found together with all other types. Juvenile Sæfell clasts are present in various amounts throughout the investigated section. A downward migration of explosion foci during the eruption is established based on the distribution of the different types of xenoliths in the tuff-cone (i.e. the appearance of Type I–Type II–Type III xenoliths with increasing stratigraphic height) in combination with the observed relations in basement stratigraphy beneath Heimaey. In the beginning of the eruption a combination of high eruption rate and abundant seawater resulted in shallow-seated explosions depositing only juvenile material and Type I xenoliths. The downward migration of explosion foci is suggested to be the result of lowered influx of seawater (due to the formation of a cone that reached 50–75 m a.s.l.) in combination with lowered eruption rate. As the basement stratigraphy beneath Heimaey is well documented by a 1565 m deep drill-hole, the depth of the explosions can be constrained to vary between less than 170 m in the beginning of the eruption and exceeding 820 m in the final phases. This is much deeper than previously reported for any Surtseyan tuff-cone forming eruption and consistent with the downward penetration of a diatreme. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Heimaey is the southernmost and also the youngest of nine volcanic centres in the southward-propagating Eastern Volcanic Zone, Iceland. The island of Heimaey belongs to the Vestmannaeyjar volcanic system (850 km2) and is situated 10 km off the south coast of Iceland. Although Heimaey probably started to form during the Upper Pleistocene all the exposed subaerial volcanics (10 monogenetic vents covering an area of 13.4 km2) are of Holocene age. Heimaey is composed of roughly equal amounts of tuff/tuff-breccias and lavas as most eruptions involve both a phreatomagmatic and an effusive phase. The compositions of the extrusives are predominantly alkali basalts belonging to the sodic series. Repeated eruptions on Heimaey, and the occurrence of slightly more evolved rocks (i.e. hawaiite approaching mugearite), might indicate that the island is in an early stage of forming a central volcano in the Vestmannaeyjar system. This is further substantiated by the development of a magma chamber at 10–20 km depth during the most recent eruption in 1973 and by the fact that the average volume of material produced in a single eruption on Heimaey is 0.32 km3 (dense rock equivalent), which is twice the value reported for the Vestmannaeyjar system as a whole. We find no support for the previously postulated episodic behaviour of the volcanism in the Vestmannaeyjar system. However, the oldest units exposed above sea level, i.e. the Norðurklettar ridge, probably formed over a 500-year interval during the deglaciation of southern Iceland. The absence of equilibrium phenocryst assemblages in the Heimaey lavas suggests that magma rose quickly from depth, without long-time ponding in shallow-seated crustal magma chambers. Eruptions on Heimaey have occurred along two main lineaments (N45°E and N65°E), which indicate that it is seismic events associated with the southward propagation of the Eastern Volcanic Zone that open pathways for the magma to reach the surface. Continuing southward propagation of the Eastern Volcanic Zone suggests that the frequency of volcanic eruptions in the Vestmannaeyjar system might increase with time, and that Heimaey may develop into a central volcano like the mature volcanic centres situated on the Icelandic mainland. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

As magma temperature and composition drift and change, respectively, throughout an eruption, so does its rheology. These changes may span orders of magnitude in magma viscosity and result in orders of magnitude flow velocity changes, as well as transitions in eruptive style. In this study, we present a systematic high precision quantification of the rheological variations that occurred during the 2021 Fagradalsfjall Fires. In the field, we collected a suite of 22 representative samples emplaced between day 2 and 183 of the 2021 eruption. In the laboratory, we measured the melt viscosity of each sample in a concentric cylinder viscometer. Temperatures were initially raised to 1392 °C, and then lowered stepwise to eruptive temperatures as determined through syn -eruptive radiometric measurements. The resulting dataset is analyzed as a time series. An overall trend of viscosity decrease emerges. As the eruption progressed, melt viscosity decreased by 25%, from 40 Pa s to 30 Pa s at a constant temperature of 1200 °C. However, this trend is not monotonous. At least 3 positive spikes in viscosity can be identified, at day 80, 120, and 138 of the eruption. This trend tracks with geochemical variations. • We quantified the rheological variations of the 2021 Fagradalsfjall Fires. • We measured the melt viscosity of 22 samples emplaced over 181 eruption days. • As the eruption progressed melt viscosity decreased by 25% at 1200 °C. • The viscosity decrease trend is not monotonous. • Positive spikes in viscosity track with geochemical variations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract It is well established that rootless cones and associated deposits are the result of explosive interactions between lava flows and environmental water, but there is substantial uncertainty about the dynamics of rootless eruptions, particularly the relative importance of lava supply, water availability and the conditions under which they meet. Here we present a case study of the Younger Laxá Lava in NE Iceland, and the >6500 rootless cones that it created. Critically, this long (63 km) lava flow interacted with water along its length, from flow through/around a large lake (Mývatn), down a narrow river gorge (Laxárdalur) and across a broad glacial valley with wetlands and rivers (Aðaldalur). Using high-resolution digital terrain models and aerial photographs, we map the flow surface morphology, and classify, measure and analyse the rootless cone type, size and spatial distribution in the context of both lava and water availability. We find that rootless cone size is controlled by the combined availability of lava and water: large rootless cones require sustained, high volumes of lava (related to proximity to vent) and water (e.g., Lake Mývatn), whereas limited supplies of lava (with distance from the vent and from the centre of the flow) and water (particularly in dammed river valleys) build smaller cones. Where we infer that where water was distributed in sediment, the lava–water interaction style changed to low-energy and distributed bubble bursts that created >3000 hornitos in the lower reaches of Aðaldalur. The distribution of rootless cones around Mývatn also defines the pre-eruption extent of the lake and suggests substantial lake level changes during the course of the eruption. By looking at the variation in rootless cone type and size in the context of the parent lava flow and the local environment, we explain how the availability of water and local mass flow rate of lava affect the dynamics of rootless eruptions. Highlights • Environmental conditions and lava supply affect the type and size of rootless cones formed. • Large cones require sustained supplies of lava and water e.g. near Lake Mývatn. • Limited lava and water supplies build smaller cones e.g. on flow margins. • Reduced supply of lava & water leads to low-energy bubble bursts, creating hornitos. • Cones show pre-eruption extent of Mývatn & imply syn -eruptive lake level change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Sequences of basaltic pillow lavas that transition upward with systematic gradation from pillow fragment breccias to fluidal bomb-bearing breccias to bomb-bearing lapilli tuffs are common at Askja volcano, Iceland. Based on the detailed textural investigation of three of these sequences, we argue that they record temporally continuous transitions from effusive to explosive products that were erupted from, and deposited at or near a single subaqueous vent. The recognition of such sequences is important as they provide evidence for controls on the onset of explosive activity in subaqueous environments. Such investigations are complicated by the interplay of magmatic gas expansion, and phreatomagmatic and mechanical granulation fragmentation mechanisms in the subaqueous eruptive environment. All of the sequences studied at Askja have textural, componentry and sedimentological characteristics suggestive of a close genetic and spatial relationship between the pillow lavas and all of the overlying glassy clastic deposits. The identification of magma fragmentation signatures in pyroclasts was accomplished through detailed textural studies of pyroclasts within the full range of grain sizes of a given deposit i.e. bomb/blocks, lapilli and fine ash. These textural characteristics were compared and evaluated as discriminators of fragmentation in pyroclastic deposits. The presence of angular vitric clasts within the breccia and lapilli tuff displaying fragile glassy projections indicates little or no post-depositional textural modification. A shift in vesicle and clast textures between the pillow lavas and the large concentration of fluidal bombs in the breccia indicates that the phreatomagmatic explosions were initially triggered by magmatic vesiculation. The initial magmatic gas expansion may have been triggered by depressurization caused by the drainage of the ice-confined lake surrounding Askja. The fuel coolant interactions (FCIs) of the more efficient phreatomagmatic explosions were enabled by the increase in the surface area to volume ratio of the fluidal bombs in the water, producing a premix of magma and water. The onset and increasing influence of phreatomagmatic fragmentation is preserved in the presence of very fine blocky ash particles and diminished presence of larger particles such as fluidal bombs. The textural, sedimentological and environmental characteristics of these deposits suggest that phreatomagmatic explosions can be triggered by initial magmatic gas expansion, but that it is likely one of many mechanisms for triggering such explosions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The 2014–2015 Holuhraun eruption extruded >1 km3 of lava in a barren region of the Icelandic highlands. Due to its large volume and the abundance of data for this eruption, Holuhraun is an ideal site to investigate fissure-fed eruption products for comparison with other large lava flow-fields on Earth and other planetary bodies. To characterize lava morphologies associated with this event, we used 0.01–0.5 m/pixel image data, acquired from aerial surveys and small Unoccupied Aircraft Systems (sUAS) to create a 1:800-scale facies map that was ground-truthed using field observations during the summers of 2015–2019. Each facies region exhibits similar attributes in the remote sensing data, including albedo, surface texture, and geomorphology. However, at our mapping scale of 1:800, the facies typically include mixtures of lava types. Results show that transitional lava types (e.g., rubbly pāhoehoe, slabby pāhoehoe, and spiny pāhoehoe) dominate the 2014–2015 Holuhraun lava flow-field (83.82 km2), rather than the traditional end-members of ʻaʻā and classical pāhoehoe. At 1:800-scale, we distinguish the following eight facies (with the percentage of total flow-field area shown in parentheses): rubbly (57.35%), spiny (25.96%), undifferentiated rubbly–spiny (9.59%), shelly (5.58%), pāhoehoe (1.24%), flat-lying–knobby (0.58%), vent-proximal edifice (0.19%), and channel interior (0.16%). Field observations show that initial coherent pāhoehoe surfaces were episodically disrupted to produce slabby and rubbly textures that resemble ʻaʻā in remote sensing data. Our observations also show that continued solidification of the lava beneath brecciated surfaces can cause the surfaces of disrupted lobes to stabilize, or restabilize and undergo inflation. These factors complicate the use of surface texture as a direct indicator of emplacement style, which can change over the course of an eruption. This complexity has important implications for reconstructing the emplacement history of flow-fields on Earth and other planetary bodies. • Holuhraun flow-field characterization based on facies mapping and field observations. • The flow-field includes eight facies, which are dominated by transitional lava types. • Rubbly, slabby, and spiny pāhoehoe are major products of this fissure-fed eruption. • Disruption events and inflation contributed to overprinting of initial lava texture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lava that erupted during the 2014–2015 Holuhraun eruption in Iceland flowed into a proglacial river system, resulting in aqueous cooling of the lava and an ephemeral hydrothermal system. We carried out a monitoring study of this system from 2015 to 2018 to document the cooling of the lava over this time, using thermocouple measurements and data-logging sensors. The heat loss rate from advection through this hydrothermal system in August 2015 was ~5.5 × 108 W; since eruption, aqueous cooling likely accounted for ~1% of the total heat loss from the lava. This estimate excludes steam losses from fumaroles as well as any groundwater that was not released to the surface, and thus is a lower bound. Near the terminus of the flow, advection of heat by flowing water may have locally accounted for tens of percent of the total cooling of that part of the flow. Our data quantify the importance of water cooling for this lava flow and can be compared with models to better understand lava–water interactions more generally. We also provide detailed methods for simple, low-cost monitoring of similar instances in the future. • Monitoring the cooling of the lava erupted during 2014–2015 at Holuhraun, Iceland, quantifies advection of heat by interaction with flowing water. • Aqueous Advection accounted for ~1% of the total heat loss from the lava but was likely much more important in local areas. • These methods enable simple, low-cost monitoring of aqueous cooling of lava. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]