Search

We studied the genetic structure of a red deer ( Cervus elaphus) population in 8 woodlands of northeastern Poland and 1 in western Belarus and compared it with the documented history of the population in the region. Red deer nearly went extinct in the region in the 18th and 19th centuries. In the mid-19th century, reintroductions began and continued until the mid-1960s. Animals were translocated from various sites in Poland and other European countries. We genotyped 303 individuals using 14 microsatellite loci and sequenced 253 individuals for a fragment of the control region (mitochondrial DNA [mtDNA]). The microsatellite analyses demonstrate that 3 genetically separate subpopulations exist, but 4 according to mtDNA. All haplotypes found in northeastern Poland are closely related to haplotypes from northern and northwestern Europe. The only individuals that could have originated from autochthonous red deer populations, rather than introductions, were found in Napiwoda Forest. The present regional genetic structure of the species is consistent with the known history of red deer translocations. Current patterns of genetic diversity in these populations are determined by the interaction of past human management and contemporary natural migrations. © 2012 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of environmental and human factors on group sizes of large ungulates is still poorly understood, especially when considered at multiple timescales. We analyzed long-term data of red deer (Cervus elaphus) group sizes collected at 3 timescales in Białwieża Primeval Forest, Poland, from 1986 to 2003. On the daily scale, group size differed among periods of the day for females in summer (P = 0.001) and autumn (P = 0.04) but not winter (P = 0.18). Group size of males did not differ (P > 0.35) among the periods of day during any season. On the seasonal scale, both sexes had larger group sizes in winter than summer, and males were always more solitary than females. At the annual scale, multiple-regression analysis explained 96% (r² = 0.957) of deer grouping patterns. Human hunting had the greatest influence (sr²i = 0.414), followed by acorn crop (sr²i = 0.012) and snow cover (sr²i = 0.008). Intense hunting by humans during a 5-year period appeared to cause increases in group sizes, even while red deer densities decreased. The disruption of the normally positive relationship of deer density to group size apparently affected predator-prey relationships, consequently red deer numbers continued to decline even after hunting pressure was relaxed. Our results indicate caution should be used when reducing red deer numbers by dramatic increases in hunting because the resulting behavioral and ecological changes in deer have implications that extend well beyond the season and year, with important consequences for the long-term stability of the population, especially in areas where large carnivores are present. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]