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Purpose: The purpose of this paper is twofold: (1) to map and analyze existing complexity typologies and (2) to develop a framework for characterizing complexity-based approaches. Design/methodology/approach: This study was conducted in three stages: (1) initial identification of typologies related to complexity following a structured procedure based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) protocol; (2) backward and forward review to identify additional relevant typologies and (3) content analysis of the selected typologies, categorization and framework development. Findings: Based on 17 selected typologies, a comprehensive overview of complexity studies is provided. Each typology is described considering key concepts, contributions and convergences and differences between them. The epistemological, theoretical and methodological diversity of complexity studies was explored, allowing the identification of the main schools of thought and authors. A framework for characterizing complexity-based approaches was proposed including the following perspectives: ontology of complexity, epistemology of complexity, purpose and object of interest, methodology and methods and theoretical pillars. Originality/value: This study examines the main typologies of complexity from an integrated and multidisciplinary perspective and, based on that, proposes a novel framework to understanding and characterizing complexity-based approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Corporate universities are regarded as the knowledge management institution of enterprises, but how to improve knowledge enhancement function has not been investigated. Constructed upon the knowledge-based view, the purpose of this study is to investigate the influencing factors of knowledge enhancement of corporate universities. Design/methodology/approach: This paper takes 34 Chinese corporate universities as samples. The influencing factors and interrelationships are checked through exploratory case study and multi-case analysis. A "stimulate-action" model of influencing factors is built up based on the multi-case analysis. The fuzzy set qualitative comparative analysis is used to examine configurational paths for knowledge enhancement. Findings: The research finding shows that only a single element of knowledge management does not constitute a necessary condition for knowledge enhancement of corporate university and explored the concurrent synergy effect and linkage matching mode of multiple conditions of knowledge management. Most of the knowledge-enhanced corporate universities are of strengthening the knowledge process, which shows that sorting out the knowledge process is the core of the corporate university. Originality/value: Unlike the existing research, the external teachers and combing of external knowledge processes are the key factors; this paper proposed that the internal teachers and sorting out the knowledge process within the enterprise play a central role in the knowledge enhancement of corporate universities. The path of high-knowledge enhancement and without high-knowledge enhancement is asymmetry. This paper refined and extended the application of the knowledge management framework in explaining multiple conjunctural causations and improves the relevant theories of organizational knowledge management in the Chinese context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: There is a lack of epistemological considerations in religious studies methodologies, which have resulted in an on-going critique in this field. In addressing this critique, the researcher's observer effect needs to be actively accounted for owing to the influence of the researcher's epistemology in the author's research. This paper aims to answer the question of why a researcher should address one's epistemology in the research. Design/methodology/approach: Using second-order cybernetics as an approach, observer dependence is exemplified and justified in the context of religious studies research methodology. The research activity is shown as a relational temporal coupling that introduces inter-subjective aspects to the research. The research process is analysed showing the need to provide scope for the researcher's epistemology in one's research. Findings: A relational observer-dependent approach to research embraces the epistemology of the researcher and the participants providing equality in the relationship. The research results are thus framed according to the nature of the relationship and are thus not detached. This addresses social justice and reduces troubling truth claims. Research limitations/implications: This first paper focuses on the question of why epistemology should be included in scholarly research. A detailed framework for how scholars may achieve this goal is to be part of the future study and is not presented in this paper. Practical implications: In many positivist approaches there is a motivation to hide the researcher; however, recently there has been a move towards including authors in the first person, realising that science is tied to politics, which does not reach its ideals of objectivity. Cybernetics is presented as an approach to addressing the move from "objective" to "subjective" research. Social implications: Researchers cannot get into the minds of their participants and thus an authorial privileged presentation by the researcher of the participant's experiences is fraught with epistemological weaknesses. Attempting to own one's own epistemology could address social justice in research by personalising the research and accounting for the observer effect and the inter-subjective attributes of the research relationship. Originality/value: The principle of observer dependence in cybernetics is not new; however, a research approach that focuses on the nature of knowing and how this may influence one's research in religious studies is uncommon. It is thus presented here as a viable option to address the critique of epistemologically weak research methodology in religious studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - This paper connects the notions of abstract and actual based on a reflection of the Chinese notions of xiangsheng (mutual arising) and xushi (abstract/actual, empty/full). These word pairs enable a conception of abstract and actual that shows an alternative to, and which complements, distinctions of the terms that are based in dualism and rationalism. Design/methodology/approach - The author sidesteps methodological rigour as practiced in the West as the style of thought introduced here shows a picture of abstract and actual arising from mutual interdependence rather than attempting to describe and formally distinguish abstract and actual through an observer-independent methodology. Findings - Discussing the relationship of actual and abstract from the viewpoint of the Chinese cultural tradition, this paper shows how abstract and actual may be thought of as a mutually generating, dynamic and polar relationship. The discussion further provides a basis for understanding how perceptions of abstract and actual can be understood as choices made by observers. Research limitations/implications - This research is based on the limited personal experience of the author as a teacher of architectural design at one Taiwanese and one Chinese university. Originality/value - This paper reflects on the relationship of abstract and actual from a non-dualist viewpoint by introducing traditional Chinese ways of seeing and appreciating, and connecting this perspective to cybernetic and radical constructivist epistemologies. To show the relationship between abstract and actual as polar and mutually arising, the paper focuses particularly on making and experiencing in and through creative processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The paper is aimed at understanding and investigating Gregory Bateson's and Heinz von Foerster's peculiar relation to knowledge, the unknowable, and research. From this, the question of how to carry on their heritage is raised. Design/methodology/approach - The whole paper is designed as an epistemological experiment starting from reflections on Gregory Bateson's metalogues and adopting a methodological style of reasoning. A strong focus is laid on the combination of loose and strict thinking which is characteristic of both Heinz von Foerster and Gregory Bateson. Findings - In order to preserve and further develop their heritage, it is necessary to deal with Bateson's and Foerster's view(s) on the relations between the unknowable and the meaning of research. This has to be done in a manner in which epistemology and research become a personal as well ecological matter in which the relationship between the single individual and its greater context becomes explicit. Research limitations/implications - This paper refuses to view science and cybernetics within predefined boundaries. It suggests that the form of science and its relations to the individual and the community should be viewed as processes of constant re-generation. Originality/value - The value of this paper lies in viewing the similarities of Bateson's and von Foerster's peculiar style as general guidelines for future research and an understanding of epistemology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - This paper aims to provide principles and to give a case study of the application of Bateson's ideas to promote epistemological change in organisations to deal with problems which many governments in English speaking countries currently attempt to address by control through detailed performance indicators and top-down monitoring. It suggests that epistemological change requires an approach that goes beyond rational argument and provides an example of the way that emotional engagement and story telling can be built into action research based on cybernetic ideas. Design/methodology/approach - Bateson stresses the need for an epistemological change to embrace an understanding of the implications of circular causation to underpin our approach to problems and policy making. The case study shows how research using systemic principles can address epistemological change at all its stages including data collection and dissemination. In this way the research aims to become a conversation in which participants can reflect on the epistemological assumptions that underpin their actions. Findings - Following Maturana and Bateson it is found that a reflexive conversation that engages participants through emotion and story telling as well as demonstrating reflection on the researcher's own assumptions can powerfully engage participants in changing how they see problems and what they do. Originality/value - Whilst rational argument can be used to develop and expand a rational domain such as cybernetics, the paper suggests that the introduction of a systemic or cybernetic understanding to newcomers instead requires aesthetic seduction that can be achieved by promoting reflection on epistemological assumptions through story telling and emotional engagement. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to introduce a dynamic and integrative epistemology as a substitute to normative epistemology.Design/methodology/approach A philosophical argument based on the critique of literature.Findings Normative epistemology implies that knowing leads to certainty, and it has to be objective and universal because it is an accurate representation of reality. Dynamic and integrative epistemology uphold that knowing leads to accumulating insights though information processing. Knowing is a unified but fourfold process of experiencing, understanding, judging and acting (Lonergan, 1990). It occurs at four levels of consciousness: the empirical, the intellectual, the evaluative and the pragmatic (). Dynamic and integrative epistemology extends rationality, knowledge and intelligence to non-humans because institutions have substantive, structural, behavior and teleological dimensions and processes that enable them to process information, i.e. to know.Research limitations/implications Translating a conceptual paper into practical action, organizational structuring or product design can be difficult.Practical implications Extending the concept of rationality to non-humans implies realizing that human abilities are limited and need to be augmented by proper institutional design and artificial tools.Social implications The design of intelligent organizations, societies and artificial tools.Originality value Normative epistemology which considers reason and faith, empirical (experience) and rational (understanding), positive (facts) and ideal (principles, representations or wishes), physical (objects) and “mental” (ideas or concepts), practice and theory, knowledge (episteme) and opinion (doxa), reflection and action as opposed and mutually exclusive can be replaced by a dynamic and integrative epistemology which puts emotional, intellectual, evaluative and pragmatic dimensions of human knowing in an order of succession through a unified but yet differentiated process which can be augmented by non-human “experts”. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – David Huffman, as a graduate student, earned his immortality by solving a problem that had stumped Claude Shannon, the creator of the field of information theory. How he saw the problem differently and the nature of his discovery have implications for how the author gets stuck, how the author gets unstuck, and how the internal models limit the ability to see patterns in the world. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach – This paper describes how Huffman discovered his elegant algorithm, why it had not been discovered previously, how the algorithm may relate to the attempt to find meaning in decision making, and generalises implications for problem solving and daily lives. Findings – Huffman was only able to see the problem anew in the cathartic moment of abandoning it. The algorithm he discovered suggests that the concept of "meaning" was an obstacle in his process. Practical implications – Huffman coding is one of the underpinnings of computer science. While it should be widely understood for that alone, the process of its discovery and its fundamental methodology are deeply instructional. Originality/value – Alexander Pope said "As the twig is bent, so grows the tree", a classic statement about conscious purpose and man's controlling nature. Huffman's algorithm suggests the real world works the other way around: "As the leaves are lit, so grows the tree". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – This paper aims to formulate a hypothesis for the origin and position of binarism within human meaning systems. Specifically, binarism exists ineluctably as a living system's impetus toward life over death, and then – at the symbolic level within human meaning systems – as a device by which humans more efficiently dissipate the solar-energetic gradient. Design/methodology/approach – Organisms composing terrestrial ecosystems acquire and degrade solar energy or its derivatives, thereby reducing the thermal gradient impressed on Earth by the Sun. Kay and Schneider call this "the thermodynamic imperative of the restated second law for open systems." This paper connects the "thermodynamic imperative" to aspects of human meaning systems and pushes Serres' notion regarding homeostasis and the origin of communication one step further to consider such an origin in terms of a binarism born of solar-energetic gradient dissipation. Findings – It is hypothesized that the human homoiotherm extends the ineluctable binarism of life over death for all living systems to a symbolic level – as a first, or local, "energetic order" – which serves as a foundational living systems to a symbolic level – as a first, or local, "energetic order" – which serves as a foundational device of human meaning systems; humans efficiently use this binary device to produce entropy and maintain homeostasis within individual organisms and comprehensive ecosystems; and human language, and ultimately the entirety of human meaning systems, emerges from the dissipation of the solar-energetic gradient. Originality/value – Modern Western philosophical concepts related to binarism – i.e. Kantian and Hegelian dialectics – are not associated with ecological imperatives. The present hypothesis proposes the co-existence of both a fundamental binarism (i.e. impetus of life over death) and more complex symbolic differentials (in a Leibnizian/Deleuzian sense) as necessary for the emergence of complex human meaning systems in consonance with thermodynamic and ecological imperatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to propose a valid and quantitative measurement method of knowledge diffusion efficiency for the knowledge collaboration networks (KCNs).Design/methodology/approach This paper builds a weighted KCN model with the node and edge weights. Based on the weighted KCN, the factors of knowledge diffusion efficiency are proposed and analyzed. Then, the knowledge transfer effect between two nodes is proposed and measured by comprehensively integrating the above factors. Furthermore, the main metric of efficiency of knowledge diffusion is proposed by modifying Latora and Marchiori’s model of efficiency of network.Findings A case is studied to illustrate the applicability of the proposed weighted network model and the knowledge diffusion efficiency measurement method. The results show the methods proposed in this paper can better measure and analyze the knowledge diffusion efficiency of KCNs than the traditional un-weighted methods and the subjective evaluation methods.Originality/value The real KCNs are always weighted networks. The weighted model of KCN can better reflect the real networks than the un-weighted model. Based on the weighted networks, the measurement methods proposed in this paper can more efficiently and accurately measure and evaluate the knowledge diffusion efficiency than the traditional methods. This study can help researchers to better understand knowledge diffusion theoretically, and provide managers with a decision support for knowledge management in practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to analyze the main differences in the cybernetic structures necessary for elementary anticipation, understood as anticipation of the repetition of one known pattern, and complex anticipation, understood as anticipation of the repetition of known sequences of patterns. Design/methodology/approach – A functional cybernetic approach is used to develop the necessary additions to an elementary anticipatory system, so that it can provide standards for anticipated sequences containing seven single patterns or "chunks". Findings – A subsystem for the anticipation of sequences is developed that is able to: identify the beginning of known sequences; search for different known sequences containing that beginning; and decide to use later patterns of such a sequence as standards for anticipated patterns. Deciding to actually use such patterns for anticipation requires an additional subsystem to switch between the feedback pattern recognition and the feedforward anticipation mode. Practical implications – The paper shows how complex anticipation can be developed from elementary forms by adding highly parallel structures that apply the same underlying principles; and it emphasizes epistemological demands for the structure and the data organization that have to be fulfilled, so that anticipation of the repetition of sequences becomes possible. Originality/value – The paper illustrates the complexity of the anticipation of sequences and it provides the base to analyze more complex forms of specifically human thinking. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of the paper is to analyze cybernetic necessities of output-side attention directing systems, i.e. how systems can decide to act towards one of various inputs. Design/methodology/approach – Complex pattern recognition and sequence learning systems may recognize more than one pattern and deliver more than one output at a point in time. Therefore, they require an output-side attention directing system to decide to act towards just one pattern. The necessary cybernetic structures of such systems are analyzed using a functional approach. Findings – An output-side attention directing system has to evaluate the effect of current observations (patterns, sequences, etc.) on highest level goal-values (in a living system these are existential goal-values like a body temperature or energy supply). Measure of this effect is the degree of goal-approximation towards these goal-values. This measure can either be preprogrammed for some patterns or sequences, or has to be determined in trial and error processes for new patterns or sequences learned by the system. Practical implications – The paper shows the cybernetic necessities of the development of the "know how" of sequence learning systems in time, starting with default behavior, via learning new patterns and sequences, and trial and error to develop goal-orientated actions towards them, until finally the achieved results enable experience based directing of attention. Originality/value – The paper shows basic cybernetic structures and functions for output-side attention directing systems required for all complex pattern recognition and sequence learning systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to offer an incursion into the complexity of organisations. This paper distinguishes a collective in its surroundings, an organisation in its medium and an organisation in its environment and proposes these distinctions as complementary epistemologies that help when studying organisations. Design/methodology/approach – This is a conceptual paper, supported by two case studies, that makes use of ideas of organisational cybernetics, autopoiesis and organisational ecology. Findings – Beyond the more common black box observation of organisations that helps account for the transformations of inputs into outputs, this paper argues for the accounting of the relationships producing an organisation. This latter approach highlights the need to account for the complexity of communications between autonomous systems with different cognitive capabilities. Originality/value – The complementary epistemologies offered in this paper offer an emerging paradigm to understand ecologies of enterprises and other organizational forms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to analyze how sequence learning can build on pattern-recognition systems and how it can contribute to the behavioral options of goal-oriented systems. Design/methodology/approach – A functional approach is used to develop the necessary cybernetic structures of a subsystem for sequence learning, that can recognize patterns, register patterns occurring repeatedly and connect these to sequences. Based on that it is analyzed how goal-oriented systems can use information about reoccurring sequences. Findings – A subsystem for sequence learning basically requires pattern recognition and it needs a structure for the directed connection of single standards for pattern matching to standards for sequences, given that it can learn both new patterns and new sequences. Such a subsystem for sequence learning may recognize a certain pattern and with that the end of a certain sequence. So it may deliver more than one output signal at a point in time, and therefore needs additionally a subsystem for directing attention. Practical implications – The paper analyses the principles of an "associative" way of connecting standards for pattern matching to standards for sequences. Also it shows the cybernetic necessity of an attention directing system that has to decide how to deal with the multiple outputs of a subsystem for sequence learning, i.e. to decide to act either towards a pattern or a whole sequence. Originality/value – The paper investigates basic mechanisms of sequence learning and its contribution to goal-oriented behavior. Also, it lays the base for an analysis of attention directing systems and anticipatory systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – This paper aims to contribute to the understanding of the knowledge that Beer's viable system model helps when applied to the study of change processes in organisations. Design/methodology/approach – This paper develops a case study constructed on interviews and shared reflections by the author and a key player in the company. Aspects of the case study are then seen with an epistemological lens. Findings – While it is apparent that ideas, purposes, values or policies depend on resources to happen, this paper argues that it is necessary their embodying in effective relations to succeed creating and producing desirable meanings. Research limitations/implications – Some forms of embodiment are more effective than others. The viable system model offers embodiment criteria to increase the chances of a successful production of ideas, purposes, values and policies, and the case study shows that for this purpose a limitation is transforming long-established relationships. Originality/value – This paper uses a particular and unique situation to illustrate through the viable system model some of the general difficulties that organisations face in achieving desirable transformations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The paper aims to describe the inadequate nature of both "mono-objectivist" approaches, which deny any role of social influence in science, and relativist social constructions, which fail to distinguish between science and pseudoscience. It outlines an alternative conceptual framework that allows for the possibility of social construction of science, while preventing epistemological relativism. Design/methodology/approach - The study utilizes the cybernetic concept of recursion to show how science can bend back on itself, investigating its own foundations, without undermining its ability to improve our empirical understanding of the world. The paper makes use of several case studies to define specific mechanisms that show how the process of knowledge production in science can steer a course between reduction to a single "right answer," and fragmentation into subjective interpretations. Findings - The paper concludes by showing how the cybernetic recursion of multiple objectivity can also be applied to cybernetics itself. In particular, it suggests that such recursive investigations allow us to reconsider the Law of Requisite Variety, and envision an alternative form that can better account for the complexity that arises in self-generating systems. Research limitations/implications - The research is unlikely to be of use to scientists looking for epistemological proof of singular right answers, or social constructivists looking for proof of epistemological relativism. Practical implications - The paper suggests that researchers in constructivism need not limit their work for fear that it will lead to relativist conclusions. Originality/value - This paper fulfils an identified need to offer an alternative to current developments in the field of science and technology studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Mathematical models are constructed at the interface between practice, experience and theories. The function of models puts us on guard against the privilege granted to what is accepted as abstract and formal, and at the same time puts us on guard against a static and phenomenological conception of knowledge. The epistemology of models does not suppress in any way the objectives of science: only, a dogmatic conception concerning truth is removed, and dynamic and dialectical aspects of monitoring are stressed to establish the most viable model. The purpose of this paper is to examine hybrid methodologies (inductive-deductive) that may either propose hypothetical causal relations and seek support for them in field data or detect causal relations in field data and propose hypotheses for the relations detected. Design/methodology/approach: The authors follow a dialectical analysis for a type of inductive-deductive model. Findings: In this work, the authors present an inductive-deductive methodology whose practical result satisfies the Hegelian dialectic. The consequent implication of their mutual reciprocal integration produces abstractions from the concrete that enable thought. The real problem in this case is a given ontological system or reality. Originality/value: The essential elements of the models – variables, equations, simulation and feedback – are studied using a dialectic Hegelian theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - To demonstrate that Bateson's path-breaking life and breakthrough thinking have directly (and indirectly) inspired a profound shift which has specific and practical effects in the physical world - as well as in the world of ideas. Design/methodology/approach - The paper describes an outstanding initiative inspired by Bateson's ideas and work. Findings - Colombia's Gaviotas, situated far from the traditional centers of power and prestige, is the scene of an extraordinary whole system's experiment which is successfully applying Batesonian ideas in a harsh and troubled setting. Colombia is a country where environmental degradation, violence and instability are rampant. The paper examines some of the successes already achieved in Gaviotas, the path that lies ahead and the new opportunities being pursued by the Gaviotas project's developers. The paper attempts to understand how scientists are actively using Bateson's epistemology in their work. Practical implications - This paper aims to enrich the Bateson memorial by demonstrating that cutting-edge ecological thinking, as pioneered by Bateson, is being applied around the globe in ways both surprising and profound. Originality/value - This paper identifies a unique attempt to manifest, in the most difficult circumstances, that Bateson's ecological concepts and values are not abstraction s and that change is a process which can occur in the most unlikely places. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - This paper seeks to present a proposal to change the form in which knowledge is produced in Colombia. Design/methodology/approach - Discusses the key issue - to transform the way in which the production of knowledge is currently taking place at the university level. Findings - To be able to increase the production of knowledge in this country there is a need to create bonds among industrial, governmental, and academic institutions. It is believed that this can be done by the development of a system capable of continuously forming researchers at a doctoral level. Originality/value - The paper puts forward a proposal for the construction of such a system based on the developments of organizational cybernetics. The proposal is based on the concept of autonomy which is crucial to solve this problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose The purpose of this paper is to contribute to refine the conceptual framework of complexity. For such a purpose, a number of epistemologically oriented remarks are provided, arguing about the relevance of second-order considerations for complexity and the importance of pluralism in scientific research.Design/methodology/approach At first, the paper focuses on one of the topical areas of complexity research, i.e. network theory, but uses this for drawing the attention to more general issues. The underlying assumption is that scientific and philosophical research might complement each other, and that this is especially crucial for the advancement of complexity.Findings The paper suggests three ways for refining the scheme of complexity: analyzing it at the right level, i.e. not focusing on single principles or theories (e.g. network theory), but rather on the overall frame; including both ontological and epistemological considerations; and recognizing how the epistemological implications of complexity foster the adoption of a pluralist stance in scientific research (and beyond).Social implications The way in which science (complexity) is portrayed, i.e. as “perspectival” and inclined to pluralism, could impact on how it is thought, designed and socially perceived.Originality/value Complexity is one of most promising fields of contemporary science, but still lacks of a coherent frame of analysis. This requires an investigation from different point of views, as an object of interdisciplinary cooperation. The main paper’s value consists of providing second-order considerations which puts scientific findings in perspective and can contribute to a better understanding of their meaning from a philosophical standpoint too. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to suggest a definition of genetic information by taking into account the debate surrounding it. Particularly, the objections raised by Developmental Systems Theory (Griffiths, 2001; Oyama 1985; Griffiths and Knight 1998) to Teleosemantic endorsements of the notion of genetic information (Sterelny et al. 1996; Maynard Smith, 2000; Jablonka, 2002) as well as deflationist approaches which suggest to ascribe the notion of genetic information a heuristic value at most, and to reduce it to that of causality (Godfrey-Smith, 2000; Boniolo, 2003, 2008). Design/methodology/approach – The paper presents the notion of genetic information through its historical evolution and analyses it with the conceptual tools offered by philosophical theories of causation on one side (“causation as influence,” Woodward, 2010; Waters, 2007; Lewis, 2000) and linguistics on the other (“double articulation” Martinet, 1960). Findings – The concept of genetic information is defined as a special kind of cause which causes something to be one way rather than another, by combining elementary units one way rather than another. Tested against the notion of “genetic error” this definition demonstrates to provide an exhaustive account of the common denominators associated with the notion of genetic information: causal specificity; combinatorial mechanism; arbitrariness. Originality/value – The definition clarifies how the notion of information is understood when applied to genetic phenomena and also contributes to the debate on the notion of information, broadly meant, which is still affected by lack of consensus (Floridi, 2013). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – Context and cultural condition given, cybernetic agency theory enables the anticipation of patterns of behaviour. However, this only occurs under “normal” conditions. Abnormal conditions occur when pathologies develop in the agency, especially within its Piagetian intelligences. An understanding of these pathologies, therefore, constitutes an appreciation of how abnormal behaviour develops. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach – Different classifications of pathology are considered: autopathic and sociopathic, transitive and lateral pathologies, epistemological and ontological pathologies, within a system and outside system effects of pathologies. The effects of pathologies are inefficacy, loss of cohesion within a system, emerging neurosis, and not least corruption. Findings – Within Agency Mindset Theory, four types of pathologies are identified: being detached from the cultural system, behaviour does not conform to extant values; an inhibited figurative intelligence is disturbing self-reference and resulting in incapability to learn cognitively; the operative system does not respond to strategic intentions: operative decision making is not anchored in ethical, ideological or strategic specifications of the social system; action and behaviour of the organisation are driven by outside interests. Research limitations/implications – This part of the research could only provide a framework for theoretically identifying the systemic roots of pathologies within social systems, but not provide an in-depth analysis of the shifts in values and practices, which accompany the emergence of pathologies. Practical implications – The research is indicating that emergent pathologies and moves towards corruption could be either identified through underlying shifts in values and practices, but also through reduced functions (inefficacies) of the indispensable internal processes of an organisation (a social system), be it action-oriented or learning-oriented processes. Originality/value – The paper draws on earlier work undertaken in the last few years by the same authors, who in a new way are pursuing new directions and extensions of that earlier research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose Three problematic issues followed by paradigm changes over the recent history of human intellectual endeavour are identified as 1. mysticism/superstition to – conventional science (of physics), 2. predominant use of qualitative/quantitative properties for analysis and design to – structural or systemic properties, and 3. current speculative/fragmented, multiple approaches to the “systemic view” to – a firmer knowledge-based approach reflecting the empirical and universal nature of this view. This paper aims to consider the problematic issues, to conclude that conventional science is inadequate to cope with the 2nd paradigm change and to introduce a “new science of systems” which can integrate conventional science and alleviate the 3rd problematic issue by suggesting three principles implemented by linguistic modelling as operational model.Design/methodology/approach The highly successful methodology of conventional science is followed with systemic content by suggesting three general principles of systems, namely, principle of existence (pervasiveness of structural description), principle of complexity (aggregates for emergence of outcomes) and principle of change (change by purpose or chance), and linguistic modelling of static and dynamic scenarios based on natural language as operational model. This language is processed to “elementary constituents”, of which complex structures can be constructed. These constituents are converted into reasoning schemes consisting of “ordered pairs” and “predicate logic statements” in static and dynamic states.Findings Stories of problematic scenarios are converted into the universal scheme of “management/producers” – “products” – “users/consumers” by constructing linguistic networks of products and semantic diagrams of organizations/user/consumers for investigating the emergence of outcomes in analysis and for designing prototypes. Problematic issues of individual objects in a scenario are resolved by methods of conventional science, which is thus integrated with systems science to form the “scientific enterprise”.Research limitations/implications Once the new approach is debated, further developments in the mathematics of ordered pairs, predicate logic and uncertainties are needed. The linguistic basis is to be further investigated. Connection with AI and “logical atomism of Bertrand Russell” is to be explored.Practical implications Further applications to large-scale scenarios by practitioners using the “universal scheme” and development of software are needed.Social implications The approach is rooted in accepted branches of knowledge, is highly teachable and should lead to be used by professionals and others once debated and accepted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The task is to report what with more details was exposed in one of the author's recently published works, and consist in trying to develop a new approach to psychotherapy. Design/methodology/approach - The method of this research is to employ Gregory Bateson's epistemological models to acquire new ideas to think and practise psychotherapy. Findings - In the course of the work it was found that, in a Batesonian perspective, psychotherapy can be considered, at the same time, ethical and aesthetic: ethical because one type of the therapist's action is founded on a conscious purpose; aesthetic because another type of the therapist's action is "spontaneous". Research limitations/implications - The practical implication of these reflections consist in the use of the Batesonian method of double description in psychotherapy. Originality/value - The original value of the paper is that the ethical nature of Batesonian psychotherapy imposes two different types of responsibility on the therapist: the first concerns the actions he takes based on the extrovert purpose and the second concerns his actions with regard to the introvert purpose, which creates the conditions for the flow of "spontaneous" action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to ask what role robustness plays in current medicine and in how far medical practices influence human robustness and thus the ability to be adapted and survive under changing conditions. Design/methodology/approach - In order to do this Bateson's concepts of learning and network pathologies are applied to the medical topic of immune reaction. Findings - Current medical research does not take sufficiently into account that natural stimuli and therapeutic interventions might lead to a large-scale of changes. This is mainly due to the lack of related epistemological tools. Practical implications - This lack leads to a restricted validity of many medical findings. There is even some evidence that the current therapeutic approach might lead to a decline of human robustness. Originality/value - This paper shows how systemic concepts can contribute to a deeper understanding of the therapeutic processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The aim of this paper is to investigate the problems of managing tacit knowledge and the importance of unlearning it. As the main problem of managing tacit knowledge lies in the fact that it escapes observation and measurement, an adequate framework that would make some dimensions of tacit knowledge visible has to be developed. Design/methodology/approach - On the basis of literature surveys the authors discuss several types of knowledge and issues related to sharing, learning and, most importantly, unlearning obsolete tacit knowledge dimensions. Findings - To overcome the perpetual elusiveness of tacit knowledge is presented a framework that could help highlight dimensions of tacit knowledge that can be mobilized and observed through the manifestation of different behaviour. It is partly possible to make explicit some dimensions of tacit knowledge that not only contribute to successful sharing and mutual learning, but also enable the identification of those parts of knowledge that hinder innovation and should be unlearned. The better one's understanding of the process of creating and using new knowledge and discarding obsolete knowledge, the more likely it is that organizations will foster innovative behaviour in organizations. Originality/value - Introduced insight is important in understanding the importance of the distinctive requirements of knowledge management related to managing tacit dimensions. In the turbulent and ever-changing business environment, tacit knowledge dimensions grow obsolete very rapidly and hinder innovation processes, so ways of un-learning this obsolete knowledge have to be found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - What is therapy? Which would be today Heinz von Foerster's answer? The authors try to unveil the mystery of an answer coming from a conversation among them. They think that Heinz von Foerster, like Gregory Bateson, was one of the most influential philosopher of therapy. In the paper they analyse some very basic key words - like trivial machine, human becoming - and key concepts - like "broaden the field of possible" - in order to understand if there is an order or a purpose in doing therapy. Design/methodology/approach - The paper is a confrontation between epistemology and therapy. The trick is that, unlike von Foerster, the authors are therapists. So probably their conversation will not be reliable. But usually therapists, in doing therapy, do not look for reliability. They try to be accountable, which is a different issue. Findings - Probably therapy is a language game. If yes, the language game of therapy is a trick without a trickster. A map in a stranger land. That can be considered the main finding which follows from von Foerster's thought. Practical implications - Nevertheless, such a wrong map sometimes could help who is lost, provided that map and territory will never be the same thing. Originality/value - The original value of the paper is, first of all that it can be considered the last essay written by Gianfranco Cecchin before his death. In the very last period of his life Cecchin was considering and sounding a new perspective for therapy. Pietro Barbetta and Dario Toffanetti were working with him in therapy and theoretically to find new frames for therapies in the post-modern era. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose In daily life, some special systems are difficult to handle, such as indistinct systems (the reverse of explicit systems), history systems, future systems, infinite systems, etc. It is one of the more important topics of broad-spectrum philosophy to give these systems observo-controllable and -manipulatable forms from the angle of epistemology and methodology. The paper aims to discuss these issues.Design/methodology/approach The author conducted a broad-spectrum analysis of some typical mechanisms of general object systems and general cognition systems through a generalized quantification method and a dynamic structure method.Findings Through generalized quantification and dynamic structure methods, the author can draw some new conclusions about these special systems: for example, the indistinct system has certain relations and structures, but these relations and structures cannot be observo-controlled directly under certain conditions; further, the indistinct system and explicit system are interdependent, and therefore people can transform an indistinct system into an explicit one.Originality/value Through the study of special systems, the author may find a new perspective and research topic for broad-spectrum philosophy, which may provide a new concept and study frame for future analysis of these special systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that sufficiently general concept of information encompassing multi-disciplinary scientific conceptualizations of this term can be useful for a discussion of the long standing philosophical problems. Design/methodology/approach – The author is using his concepts of information and its integration along with their mathematical formalization introduced in earlier publications to describe what constitutes an object, its identity and state. The concept of information used here is defined in terms of the categorical opposition of the one-and-many which plays a central role in philosophical tradition. Its formalization is closely related to formalisms of many theories involved in scientific disciplines. These features produce a common stage for philosophical discourse and scientific analysis. Findings – The formalism based on author's concept of information opens philosophical concepts such as object, identity and state to analysis consistent with scientific methodology. The analysis, consistent with modern physical theories, such as quantum mechanics, permits resolution paradoxal aspects of object's identity for long time puzzling philosophers. Originality/value – The approach to information applied here was introduced in earlier publications, but the analysis of the problems of identity in this context is novel and unprecedented. The author hopes, that even those who prefer different conceptualizations of information can benefit from the present exposition of author's analysis by considering it an example of bridging philosophical and scientific discourse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – A personal account of Gregory Bateson and the turning over of the generations, carrying some of Bateson's way of thinking forward to the time and beyond. The paper aims to discuss these issues. Design/methodology/approach – The approach taken is that of a synthesis. Findings – Bateson attributed the ecological peril to bad thinking and suggested that the author needs better thinking, including what the author can learn from the syncretic practice of art. To operate in the realm of play – music, poetry, myth, and so on – in the context of hearing your children talk about Malthusian events and mass extinctions is perhaps a way of fiddling while Rome burns. But possibly, this is itself the practice – a way to begin to master the new kinds of thinking that the author needs to learn to do. Originality/value – The issues that Bateson touched on are intensely personal. The issue of the survival of the ecosystem and of human civilization in the forms that the author recognizes is not an academic or political matter, but personal for each of us, as is the creative response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – This paper aims to set out an analysis of Gregory Bateson's thought about the relations between parts and wholes, between separateness and togetherness in order to illuminate the kind of answers Bateson proposed to the contemporary ecological dilemma. Design/methodology/approach – It roughly situates discourses of the "enchantment" of nature on the side of togetherness and discourses of scientific disenchantment on the side of togetherness. Findings – The essay looks at Bateson's discovery that neither separateness nor togetherness can ever be thought of without the other as an indication of the limits of both disenchantment and enchantment, and it suggests that awareness of these limits enables ecological insight. Originality/value – The essay proposes a broad summary of a general problem in Gregory Bateson's epistemology and shows how it emerges in political, social and ecological space. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present a reflection that can contribute to the discussion of the possibility, or not, of measuring the complexity of any given system. Design/methodology/approach – The reflection takes place considering three aspects: the first one, of an etymological character, with the purpose to specify the semantics of complexity. The second, epistemological, refers to the forms of complexity measuring in different domains. And the third, of an ontological character, refers to the essential in the complexity of reality, which contains to the observer who observes and that is observes himself. Findings – It is proposed to reserve the word complex to refer to systems that are treated as an undecomposed and irreducible totality and the act of measuring does not take place; while the expression complicated may be used when the act of reduction takes place by measuring the system. Research limitations/implications – The statement made claims to be revised, criticized, questioned, confronted ... , with the aim to enrich it and accept it, or else to reject it and discard it. Originality/value – There is some degree of originality, with respect to other works, that deals with the measurement of complexity, but which does not refer to the distinction that it is possible to establish between complexity and complication, with its epistemological implications and in particular with the challenge of its quantification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - This paper aims to show how basic cybernetics principles of the interaction of two or more goal-oriented systems determine the possibilities of social change - and of history. Design/methodology/approach - The starting-point is the assumption of a social unit organized in two levels in which leaders and subordinated members share mutual goal-values. As sources for differentiation within this unit diverging individual strivings and questions of leadership (i.e. defining goals, internal and external policy) are identified. Findings - These sources for differentiation suffice to explain the emergence of individual, political and economic conflicts, as well as the necessary emergence of a multilevel hierarchical organization of society in order to deal with these conflicts. The options of how to deal with these conflicts are analyzed in detail. Practical implications - To avoid the emergence of a proletariat, i.e. a fraction of a society whose interests are neither represented nor pursued by its leaders, is identified as crucial for the long-term stability of a social unit. Originality/value - The paper shows how a few cybernetic principles - primarily the cybernetics of decision making and Ashby's law - can explain complex social phenomena. Thus, it shows the applicability of elements of a cybernetic epistemology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - This paper seeks to use systemic thinking for the purpose of criticizing neoclassical utility theory. Design/methodology/approach - First, the systemic-theoretical ontology, epistemology and methodology are presented. Then the basis for the utility theory, and later spin-offs, the decision theory and game theory, for which among others Jon Elster is a main agent, are criticized. Findings - The psychological hypothesis, on which the utility theory is based, is rejected as untrue. Originality/value - The fact that a theory can be explained in simple mathematical terms may make it popular, but this will hardly make it more scientific, despite its display of numerous mathematical terms. This paper's contribution has been to provide a critique of this concept. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - Aims to define the conceptual tools of Gregory Bateson's epistemology - the nature of difference, logical typing, and recursion - and to apply this to understanding how we can approach the analysis of ethnographic reports of the Bushman n/om-kxaosi (shamans) and the Bushman rock art of Southern Africa. Design/methodology/approach - The paper argues that kinesthetic interaction with n/om-kxaosi provides a vehicle for learning their way of construing the world. Findings - The n/om-kxaosi have a kinesthetic lexicon and a set of dominant metaphors rooted to their ecstatic body expression that provide coherence to their ways of healing and spiritual understanding. The previously assumed incoherent nature of Bushman religious views noted by anthropologists is argued to have been the consequence of underestimating the importance Bushman thinking gives to circularity and transformation of all aspects of their experience. Originality/value - Illuminates the analysis of the Bushman culture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - The aim is to analyse changes of mass distributed value hierarchies in the course of social transformations in Russia during the last 25 years. Design/methodology/approach - The article's approach is development of the model of value hierarchies within the framework of Batesonian thinking and analysis of secondary sociological and economic data on Russia. Findings - The value hierarchy model, built within the Batesonian approach, provides a framework for analysis of the behavioural alternative choice by social individuals. Crisis events in Russia in the 1990s were related to the demolition of behavioural contexts and mass scale learning-III of the adult population. New value hierarchy structures were subsequently formed in the early 2000s. Attention of social planners to the structure of mass-distributed value hierarchies and the need to learn in changing contexts could improve the efficiency of social transformation. Research limitations/implications - Research findings are limited by the use of secondary data. However, even in this case, the model of value hierarchies has been found a useful tool of sociological data interpretation. Practical implications - Need for changes in epistemological grounds that underlie the design of massive socioeconomic reforms. Originality/value - The value hierarchy model was developed as a contribution to the Batesonian tradition of epistemology. Insights were provided into value hierarchy changes as the key driver of chronic crises in Russia in the 1990s. Social scientists and social planners within the system thinking approach could benefit from this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - To provide direct access to original documents relevant to the emergence of applied constructivist and cybernetic epistemology in the behavioral sciences. Design/methodology/approach - This paper employs hermeneutic analysis Findings - Direct evidence of the cybernetic, interactional theory articulated by Gregory Bateson provides the theoretical foundation for the problem formation, problem resolution model set forth by research associates at the Brief Therapy Center of the Mental Research Institute. Originality/value - This is a rare, never previously published address by a principal founder of communication/interactional theory [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - To show how Bateson's difference which makes a difference can be interpreted from a cybernetic view, i.e. in terms of control theory. Design/methodology/approach - Depending on the observer's choice of the system boundaries, communication or structural coupling may be recognized. With the help of Bateson's example he uses to explain his term of information the paper demonstrates how the two perspectives can be related to each other and in which way his metalogical "hypothesis non fingo" reflects this refraction of perspectives. Findings - Hypotheses describing structural coupling in the perspective of communication become explanations which then in circularity are verified by structural coupling. In his example Bateson describes a structural coupling between a dog owner and his dog in order to explain how he informs dogs. Originality/value - Provides information on Bateson's theory of explaining [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - This paper analyzes how two (or more) controllers can interact with just one controlled system. This is a basic situation in biology and sociology, but was practically never investigated. Control theory usually investigates only the interaction of one controller with one controlled system, i.e. how a goal-orientated system can dominate a niche. Design/methodology/approach - All factors determining the behavior of two feedback systems acting upon just one controlled system are analyzed systematically. Findings - The analysis shows that there are just three possibilities of interaction, i.e. conflict, hierarchy or cooperation. With the well-known domination of a niche, this gives just four modes of coexistence for goal-orientated systems. It is shown how these modes of coexistence surface in psychology, group dynamics and politics, but has been studied so far under totally different headings. Practical implications - Repeated patterns of shifts in power relations can be explained by distinguishing two power cycles. Both lead to hierarchies - either to forcefully end conflict or to peacefully ensure cooperation - which bear in them the source for future conflict. Additionally the investigation allows to identify unsolvable conflicts. Originality/value - The paper shows how a cybernetic analysis of decision making allows to find a unifying approach to different concepts in psychology, group dynamics and politics. Such it provides elements for a cybernetic epistemology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose This study aims to explore, illuminate and hence evoke further reflections on the implications of creating and conserving distinctions that inherently act as simplifications and limit appropriate action.Design/methodology/approach The approach used was reflective regarding the chosen concept of designing and learning from the perspective of a constitutive epistemology. These were investigated as circularities and as distinctions in language. The variety of intended meanings and hence implicit entailments was examined from the perspective of implicit domains.Findings A tendency to focus on the results of designing and learning rather than the processes was attributed to several factors including cultural relevance, tangibility, durability and observability. Further, it was found that result and process are arbitrary distinctions in a circular system. It was noted that lack of awareness of multiple domains encourages reification, and that distinctions inherently obscure what happens in the non-articulated aspects of living. However, expertise embraces an ability to attend to such “betweens”. This applies to expertise in the assessment of learning and designing.Originality/value The most obvious value of the findings is for the field of education. The insights gained indicate that the path of individualized learning with an emphasis on attention to the processes, inclusive of those that are not distinguished and named but can, with reflective experience, be sensed and acted on, has deep epistemological roots. A further implication is that educators require expertise to effectively work with learners, and that effective assessment depends on recurrent conversational interactions between the educator and learner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: The purpose of this study is to identify and explain the role of motivation in facilitating knowledge sharing (KS). This study explains the connection between "motivation" and "knowledge sharing" or KS. Research finding offers significant theoretical and practical suggestions. Theoretically, the study provides clarity on various motivation theories and important constructs in KS. Design/methodology/approach: This research reviews the literature on knowledge management in detail along with other published works. A search was conducted using online databases on the Web of Science (WoS) and Google Scholar. An analysis was done with the help of qualitative software NVivo 12 to critically analyze literature. Findings: This theoretical review offers a retrospective view of theories, context, methods, antecedents or enablers to understand the motivation theories used in knowledge sharing research and provides a guideline for upcoming researches to contemplate and examine numerous motivation theories and also choose the most significant motivation theory and their construct in the researches on KS. Originality/value: This theoretical review contributes toward knowledge sharing and motivation literature. There are no reviews on knowledge sharing relating to contemporary motivational theories to the best of our knowledge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study regarding cybernetic and systemic knowingness relating to the concepts of subtleness and (a)symmetry. It provides that innovative (a)symmetric approaches on Information Technology and Communication (ITC) and community and human beings. Results show that shrinking gap between the electronic world (e-world) and human world to integrate perspectives within knowledge or information or economy or society.

The article presents a study which determines formal theory for solving sociocultural problems. The study uses the epistemological theory of sociocultural dynamics by Sorokin, epistemological theory of extreme physical information (EPI) by Frieden and social viable systems (SVS) theory of Yolles to predict sociocultural events. Results show that Sorokin theory is useful for describing the conceptual aspects of complex systems such as sociocultural processes linked to political processes.

Purpose - Gregory Bateson defined a metapattern as a "pattern of patterns." But, what did he mean by metapattern (which he used only once)? Can there be a meta-science, in which metapatterns are its objects or principles? The authors explore these issues. Design/methodology/approach - The authors review examples of Bateson's "great pattern" of "combination," which the authors call the binary. Bateson showed that binary is the minimal solution to the problem of gaining new characteristics by combining parts into a larger whole. Thus, binary is clearly a metapattern, a discipline-transcending structural and functional principle. The authors select parts of Bateson's writings to highlight his search for other great patterns, some of which correspond with those developed by T. Volk. Findings - The authors suggest that the basis for a science of metapatterns is the following: functional patterns that confer advantages on the systems that possess those patterns can converge, in a meta-realm that includes all of what Bateson termed stochastic sequences, namely, in biological, cultural, and cognitive realms. The convergences are common solutions to the same functional problems that span a wide variety of systems. Other general principles in the organization of systems, such as borders, arrows, cycles, centers, and networks, constitute members of a system of metapatterns, the objects in a Batesonian metascience. The authors show that the metapatterns have implications for research in the humanities and social sciences, as well as for dynamic learning along the lines of Bateson's broadly-extended concept of epistemology. Originality/value - As nearly universal functional patterns, metapatterns could serve to create a scale-bridging form of descriptive scholarship and thus contribute to the quest for a unified body of knowledge, which E.O. Wilson termed Consilience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - To provide direct access to historically significant, original raw data from research conducted by the Bateson Team. Design/methodology/approach - The approach taken is hermeneutic textual analysis. Findings - The communication/interactional theory emerged from the interaction between members of the Bateson Research Team that took place between 1952 and 1961. Originality/value - Decisively relevant to the origins of communication/interactional theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose - Presents an "in memoriam" tribute to Heinz von Foerster. Design/methodology/approach - Outlines his work. Findings - Introduces his inspiring contributions in the applied sciences and to the more general researches on the theoretical and practical implications of the cybernetic epistemology. Originality/value - Gives insights to the importance of the work of von Foerster. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fuzziology explores the fuzziness inherent in what we know about ourselves and our experience, about our thoughts and feelings, drives for understanding and urges to create. By studying the fuzziness - its nature, sources, causes and factors affecting its dynamics, we are able to transcend the limitations, which it constantly puts on the processes of our understanding and knowing. The basic postulate and paradox of fuzziology are formulated together with its main principles, logical tools and theorems. The link between Socrates' maieutic inquiry, the ancient Vedic wisdom and fuzziology has helped us to reveal the significance of its central maxim: "Do not reject anything, but do not remain with anything either; go beyond!" [Copyright &y& Elsevier]