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Background: Maternal healthcare service utilization is a pivotal indicator of a nation's progress in safeguarding the health and well-being of its women and children. In this context, women's empowerment emerges as a critical determinant influencing the utilization of maternal healthcare services. The study aims to assess the relationship between women's level of empowerment and utilization of maternal healthcare services among currently married women in India. Data and Methods: The study uses data from the fifth round of the National Family Health Survey conducted in 2019–2021 and analyzed 26,552 (15–49 aged) currently married women who had a live birth in the last 5 years preceding the survey. Additionally, univariate and bivariate analyses, multivariate logistic regression, and the SWPER index were used for the analysis. Results: Over the years, utilization of antenatal care, skilled birth attainment, and postnatal care has increased extensively in India. However, the study found that utilization of services was higher among empowered women, and it varies across the state with the extent of empowerment. State-level analysis shows that the extent of women empowerment was higher in Goa, followed by Tamil Nadu and Kerala, and lower in Jharkhand, followed by Tripura, so as the utilization of maternal and health care services. The extent of empowerment and utilization of services also varies by level of educational attainment, employment, and socio-economic status. Conclusion: There is a need for comprehensive strategies to enhance women's empowerment through education, employment, political participation, self-awareness, and reduction in gender-based violence and child marriages, which may improve awareness demand for better public health structure, and may ensure higher utilization of maternal healthcare services. Ultimately, these strategies may converse the higher maternal death and child mortality. Significance: What is already known about this subject? Existing literature in India mostly highlights a clear connection between women's autonomy and maternal healthcare services utilization. Women with higher autonomy, decision-making power, and mobility are more likely to use these services. However, in exploring the link between women's empowerment and maternal healthcare, some studies focus on education, employment, and media access among Indian mothers, sidelining broader empowerment dimensions. What this study adds? This study is likely the first to investigate the relationship between women's empowerment and the level of maternal healthcare service utilization in India. It covers key dimensions of women's empowerment, including Attitude to Violence, Social Independence, and Decision-making Power. Moreover, it is possibly the first Indian research paper to employ a survey-based women's empowerment index in this context. Notably, the assessment highlights Social Independence as a significant dimension. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: This paper examines two state-led public-private demand-side financial support programs aiming to raise hospital delivery rates in two neighbouring Indian states-Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh. The national Janani Suraksha Yojana (JSY) was complemented with a public-private partnership program Janani Sahayogi Yojana (JSaY) in Madhya Pradesh in which private obstetricians were paid to deliver poor women. A higher amount was paid for caesarean sections (CS) than for vaginal deliveries (VD). In Gujarat state, the state program Chiranjeevi Yojana (CY) paid private obstetricians a fixed amount for a block 100 deliveries irrespective of delivery mode. The two systems thus offered an opportunity to observe the influence of supplier-induced demand (SID) from opposite incentives related to delivery mode. Methods: The data from the two programs was sourced from the Departments of Health and Family Welfare, Governments of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh, India. Results: In JSaY program the CS rate increased from 26.6 % (2007-2008) to 40.7 % (2010-2011), against the background rate for CS in Madhya Pradesh, of only 4.9 % (2004-2006). Meanwhile in CY program in Gujarat, the CS rate decreased to 4.3 % (2010-2011) against a background CS rate of 8.1 % (2004-2006). Conclusions: The findings from India are unique in that they not only point to a significant impact from the introduction of the financial incentives but also how disincentives have an inverse impact on the choice of delivery method. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction India aims to achieve universal health coverage, with a focus on equitable delivery of services. There is significant evidence on extent of inequities by income status, gender and caste. In this paper, we report geographic inequities in coverage of reproductive, maternal and child health (MCH) services in Haryana state of India. Methods Cross-sectional data on utilization of maternal, child health and family planning services were collected from 12,191 women who had delivered a child in the last one year, 10314 women with 12–23 months old child, and 45864 eligible couples across all districts in Haryana state. Service coverage was assessed based on eight indicators − 6 for maternal health, one for child health and one for family planning. Inter- and intra-district inequalities were compared based on four and three indicators respectively. Results Difference in coverage of full ante-natal care, full immunization and contraceptive prevalence rate between districts performing best and worst was found to be 54%, 65% and 63% respectively. More than one-thirds of the sub-centres (SCs) in Panchkula, Ambala, Gurgaon and Mewat districts had their ante-natal care coverage less than 50% of the respective district average. Similarly, a significant proportion of SCs in Mewat, Panipat and Hisar districts had full immunization rate below 50% of the district average. Conclusion Widespread inter- and intra-district inequities in utilization of MCH services exist. A comprehensive geographical targeting to identify poor performing districts, community development blocks and SCs could result in significant equity gains, besides contributing to quick achievement of sustainable development goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives This study measures the prevalence of risk factors among pregnant women and young children aged 12-24 months in a rural community in West Bengal, India. Methods Community health workers (CHWs) enrolled women and children into this 2015 cross-sectional study. Pregnant women were evaluated for underweight, anemia, and abnormal blood pressure. Children were evaluated for underweight, abnormal head and upper arm circumferences, and low scores from the Ages and Stages Questionnaire (ASQ). Data were collected on smartphones and tablets or by paper. Results More than half of the 279 women (59.9%) had a risk factor during pregnancy: 48.7% were anemic, 35.1% had low blood pressure, and 7.5% were underweight. Among the 366 children, 59.3% had a risk factor, including 24.0% with low ASQ scores and 49.7% who had abnormal anthropometric measures. Conclusions for Practice Vulnerable populations, such as pregnant women and young children, needed a greater connection to doctors in this rural community. This study demonstrated the feasibility of CHWs to listen to health concerns and connect underserved populations with health care services. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives In low-income settings, neonatal mortality rates (NMR) are higher among socioeconomically disadvantaged groups. Institutional deliveries have been shown to be protective against neonatal mortality. In Gujarat, India, the access of disadvantaged women to institutional deliveries has increased. However, the impact of increased institutional delivery on NMR has not been studied here. This paper examined if institutional childbirth is associated with lower NMR among disadvantaged women in Gujarat, India. Methods A community-based prospective cohort of pregnant women was followed in three districts in Gujarat, India (July 2013-November 2014). Two thousand nine hundred and nineteen live births to disadvantaged women (tribal or below poverty line) were included in the study. Data was analyzed using multivariable logistic regression. Results The overall NMR was 25 deaths per 1000 live births. Multivariable analysis showed that institutional childbirth was protective against neonatal mortality only among disadvantaged women with obstetric complications during delivery. Among mothers with obstetric complications during delivery, those who gave birth in a private or public facility had significantly lower odds of having a neonatal death than women delivering at home (AOR 0.07 95% CI 0.01-0.45 and AOR 0.03, 95% CI 0.00-0.33 respectively). Conclusions for Practice Our findings highlight the crucial role of institutional delivery to prevent neonatal deaths among those born to disadvantaged women with complications during delivery in this setting. Efforts to improve disadvantaged women's access to good quality obstetric care must continue in order to further reduce the NMR in Gujarat, India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Few Indian studies have examined the relationship between birth size and stunting in children. Studies on recovery from stunting in India are even fewer. This study, thus, investigates the relationship between birth size and stunting in Andhra Pradesh, India. This study further examines the factors associated with recovery from stunting using a longitudinal data. Methods We used data from the three waves of Young Lives Study (YLS) conducted in Andhra Pradesh in the years 2002, 2006-2007, and 2009 respectively. We used data from 1965 children in wave 1 to examine the association between birth size and stunting. For examining the factors associated with recovery from stunting between 1 and 5 years of age, and between 5 and 8 years, we use data from 582 and 670 children who were stunted at age 1 and age 5 respectively. We use multivariable logistic regression models to fulfil the objectives of the paper. Results The children who were of average- or large- size at birth were significantly less likely to be stunted than children who were of small size at birth (OR 0.61 and 0.47 respectively). Children of average/tall mothers were 0.41 times less likely to be stunted than children of shorter mothers. Severely stunted children were less likely than other stunted children to recover from stunting between 1 and 5 years of age, and between 5 and 8 years. Mother's height was statistically associated with recovery. Change in wealth status of the household was statistically associated with recovery between 1 and 5 years of age. In comparison, child immunization was associated with recovery between 5 and 8 years. Conclusions for Practice This study contributes to the understanding of the impact of birth size on childhood stunting, and to the extent of recovery from stunting in India. Further follow-up is necessary to demonstrate the impact during adolescence and adulthood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the trends in economic inequality in infant mortality across urban-rural residence in India over last 14 years. We analysed data from the three successive rounds of the National Family Health Survey conducted in India during 1992-1993, 1998-1999, and 2005-2006. Asset-based household wealth index was used as the economic indicator for the study. Concentration index and pooled logistic regression analysis were applied to measure the extent of economic inequality in infant mortality in urban and rural India. Infant mortality rate differs considerably by urban-rural residence: infant mortality in rural India being substantially higher than that in urban India. The findings suggest that economic inequalities are higher in urban than in rural India in each of the three survey rounds. Pooled logistic regression results suggest that, in urban areas, infant mortality has declined by 22 % in poorest and 43 % in richest. In comparison, the decline is 29 and 32 % respectively in rural India. Economic inequality in infant mortality has widened more in urban than in rural India in the last two decades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Large scale investment in the National Rural Health Mission is expected to increase the utilization and reduce the cost of maternal care in public health centres in India. The objective of this paper is to examine recent trends in the utilization and cost of hospital based delivery care in the Empowered Action Group (EAG) states of India. The unit data from the District Level Household Survey 3, 2007-2008 is used in the analyses. The coverage and the cost of hospital based delivery at constant price is analyzed for five consecutive years preceding the survey. Descriptive and multivariate analyses are used to understand the socio-economic differentials in cost and utilization of delivery care. During 2004-2008, the utilization of delivery care from public health centres has increased in all the eight EAG states. Adjusting for inflation, the household cost of delivery care has declined for the poor, less educated and in public health centres in the EAG states. The cost of delivery care in private health centres has not shown any significant changes across the states. Results of the multivariate analyses suggest that time, state, place of residence, economic status; educational attainment and delivery characteristics of mother are significant predictors of hospital based delivery care in India. The study demonstrates the utility of public spending on health care and provides a thrust to the ongoing debate on universal health coverage in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives In this paper we examine the role of mothers’ nutritional status and socio-biological aspects in determining the birth weight of their most recent child. Methods We used data from the second Indian National Family Health Survey conducted in 1998–1999. Analysis is based on children born within 12 months prior to the survey date ( N = 10,042). We used a subjective measure of the size of infant at birth as an indicator for birth weight and employed logistic regression to estimate the effect of BMI and other determinants on birth weight of children in India as a whole and for 17 states separately. Results and Conclusions Results show that mothers’ nutritional status is the most important determinant of newborn children’s birth weight. Safe drinking water, use of antenatal care and iron deficient anaemia were also significant contributors to low birth weight. Mothers’ BMI impact is more pervasive across India than the impact of other factors on birth weight. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Maternal and child under-nutrition is particularly widespread in low and middle-income nations, increasing the overall disease burden due to poor nutritional status. The aim of this study was to develop nutrition intervention for the prevention and control of anaemia among women of reproductive age. Methods: Community-based intervention study was conducted among 443 women of reproductive age group (15–49 years) to determine the effectiveness of a 6-month nutrition intervention package. The nutrition intervention was developed by using Precede-Proceed model and the trans-theoretical model of behavior change. Multi-channel communication approach was adopted and nutrition intervention package was provided. Assessment of haemoglobin, red blood cells, platelet, ferritin, folate, vitamin B12, haematocrit test, mean corpuscular volume, mean corpuscular haemoglobin, mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration, red cell distribution width and total leucocyte count was compared at the baseline and endline after the intervention among the participants. The chi-square test of independence and t-test were performed. Results: The only mean ferritin level shows significant improvement (p < 0.001). A significant decrease (~ 15%, p = 0.027) in anaemia was observed after the intervention. Conclusions: Improvement in anaemic status of women was observed. National schemes and programs require a more robust strategical implementation like food fortification/bio fortification and behaviour change communication at village level to enhance the availability and accessibility of fortified food. Significance: What is already known on this subject? Anaemia is highly prevalent among women and child in India. In reproductive aged women, there is some evidence of a link between nutrition and anaemia. What this study adds? The study recommends that trans-theoretical model of behaviour construct was an effective way to reduce the prevalence of anaemia among reproductive aged women of India. Multi-channel communication and household level interaction can be considered for significant implementation of nutrition intervention. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: The high incidence of acute respiratory infection (ARI)-related morbidity and mortality is a major public health concern in developing countries. This study aimed to quantify regional inequalities and the degree of association between childhood ARI and background factors. Methods: This study utilised information of 238 945 children aged below five years extracted from the Fourth Indian National Family Health Survey conducted in 2015–16. Inter-state and regional inequality in the prevalence of ARI were quantified and presented using a map of India and forest plot. The association of background characteristics and ARI was quantified using bivariate and multivariable binary logistic regression models. Results: Significant inequalities in the prevalence of childhood ARI were observed across the six regions of India. Considering the children from north-east region as a reference, those from north, central and east regions were 0.68, 1.02 and 0.57 times more likely to suffer from ARI. Comorbidity, sex, age and nutritional status of children were significantly associated with the prevalence of ARI. Conclusions: ARI remains a significant public health concern among Indian children. The results of this study showed that significant regional disparities in the prevalence of ARI exist in India. This study adds value to the better understanding of inequality patterns and quantifies within- and intra-region inequalities in the prevalence of ARI in India. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives mHealth interventions for MNCH have been shown to improve uptake of antenatal and neonatal services in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs). However, little systematic analysis is available about their impact on infant health outcomes, such as reducing low birth weight or malnutrition among children under the age of five. The objective of this study is to determine if an age- and stage-based mobile phone voice messaging initiative for women, during pregnancy and up to 1 year after delivery, can reduce low birth weight and child malnutrition and improve women's infant care knowledge and practices. Methods We conducted a pseudo-randomized controlled trial among pregnant women from urban slums and low-income areas in Mumbai, India. Pregnant women, 18 years and older, speaking Hindi or Marathi were enrolled and assigned to receive mMitra messages (intervention group N = 1516) or not (Control group N = 500). Women in the intervention group received mMitra voice messages two times per week throughout their pregnancy and until their infant turned 1 year of age. Infant's birth weight, anthropometric data at 1 year of age, and status of immunization were obtained from Maternal Child Health (MCH) cards to assess impact on primary infant health outcomes. Women's infant health care practices and knowledge were assessed through interviews administered immediately after women enrolled in the study (Time 1), after they delivered their babies (Time 2), and after their babies turned 1 year old (Time 3). 15 infant care practices self-reported by women (Time 3) and knowledge on ten infant care topics (Time 2) were also compared between intervention and control arms. Results We observed a trend for increased odds of a baby being born at or above the ideal birth weight of 2.5 kg in the intervention group compared to controls (odds ratio (OR) 1.334, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.983–1.839, p = 0.064). The intervention group performed significantly better on two infant care practice indicators: giving the infant supplementary feeding at 6 months of age (OR 1.4, 95% CI 1.08–1.82, p = 0.009) and fully immunizing the infant as prescribed under the Government of India's child immunization program (OR 1.531, 95% CI 1.141–2.055, p = 0.005). Women in the intervention group had increased odds of knowing that the baby should be given solid food by 6 months (OR 1.89, 95% CI 1.371–2.605, p < 0.01), that the baby needs to be given vaccines (OR 1.567, 95% CI 1.047–2.345, p = 0.028), and that the ideal birth weight is > 2.5 kg (OR 2.279, 95% CI 1.617–3.213, p < 0.01). Conclusions for Practice This study provides robust evidence that tailored mobile voice messages can significantly improve infant care practices and maternal knowledge that can positively impact infant child health. Furthermore, this is the first prospective study of a voice-based mHealth intervention to demonstrate a positive impact on infant birth weight, a health outcome of public health importance in many LMICs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives Vital to implementation of the World Health Organization (WHO) Safe Childbirth Checklist (SCC), designed to improve delivery of 28 essential birth practices (EBPs), is the availability of safe birth supplies: 22 EBPs on the SCC require one or more supplies. Mapping availability of these supplies can determine the scope of shortages and need for supply chain strengthening. Methods A cross-sectional survey on the availability of functional and/or unexpired supplies was assessed in 284 public-sector facilities in 38 districts in Uttar Pradesh, India. The twenty-three supplies were categorized into three non-mutually exclusive groups: maternal (8), newborn (9), and infection control (6). Proportions and mean number of supplies available were calculated; means were compared across facility types using t-tests and across districts using a one-way ANOVA. Log-linear regression was used to evaluate facility characteristics associated with supply availability. Results Across 284 sites, an average of 16.9 (73.5%) of 23 basic childbirth supplies were available: 63.4% of maternal supplies, 79.1% of newborn supplies, and 78.7% of infection control supplies. No facility had all 23 supplies available and only 8.5% had all four medicines assessed. Significant variability was observed by facility type and district. In the linear model, facility type and distance from district hospital were significant predictors of higher supply availability. Conclusions for Practice In Uttar Pradesh, more remote sites, and primary and community health centers, were at higher risk of supply shortages. Supply chain management must be improved for facility-based delivery and quality of care initiatives to reduce maternal and neonatal harm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives To examine the effects of oral maternal vitamin B12 supplementation during pregnancy and early lactation on cognitive development in children. Method We studied 218 children born to mothers enrolled in a placebo-controlled, randomized trial of vitamin B12 supplementation during pregnancy through 6 weeks post-partum. Cognitive functions were assessed at 30 months using the Bayley Scales of Infant Development- 3rd edition (BSID III). The association of maternal sociodemographic characteristics, maternal biochemical status during pregnancy, birth weight and home environment with each sub-domain of BSID-III was examined using linear regression analysis. Separate multiple linear regression analyses for each of the BSID-III sub-domains with maternal trimester specific nutritional biomarker status was conducted. Results Children of mothers who received oral vitamin B12 supplementation had significantly higher scores on expressive language compared to children of mothers who received placebo (β = 0.14, P = 0.03). Children of mothers with elevated serum total homocysteine (tHcy) in the second and third trimesters of pregnancy had significantly lower scores on expressive language (β = − 0.18, P = 0.03 and β = − 0.19, P = 0.02, respectively) and gross motor domains (β = − 0.23, P = 0.008 and β = − 0.30, P = 0.001, respectively) of BSID-III adjusted for treatment arm and multiple confounders, compared with children whose mothers did not have elevated tHcy. Conclusions for practice Maternal B12 supplementation during pregnancy was associated with higher expressive language scores in children at 30 months. Elevated maternal tHcy levels during pregnancy had negative associations with expressive language and gross motor domains of BSID-III. Larger trials of maternal B12 supplementation are needed to confirm these findings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives This study assesses associations between mistreatment by a provider during childbirth and maternal complications in Uttar Pradesh, India. Methods Cross-sectional survey data were collected from women (N = 2639) who had delivered at 68 public health facilities in Uttar Pradesh, participating in a quality of care study. Participants were recruited from April to July 2015 and surveyed on demographics, mistreatment during childbirth (measure developed for this study, Cronbach's alpha = 0.70), and maternal health complications. Regression models assessed associations between mistreatment during childbirth and maternal complications, at delivery and postpartum, adjusting for demographics and pregnancy complications. Results Participants were aged 17-48 years, and 30.3% were scheduled caste/scheduled tribe. One in five (20.9%) reported mistreatment by their provider during childbirth, including discrimination and abuse; complications during delivery (e.g., obstructed labor) and postpartum (e.g., excessive bleeding) were reported by 45.8 and 41.5% of women, respectively. Health providers at delivery included staff nurses (81.8%), midwives (14.0%), and physicians (2.2%); Chi square analyses indicate that women were significantly more likely to report mistreatment when their provider was a nurse rather than a physician or midwife. Women reporting mistreatment by a provider during childbirth had higher odds of complications at delivery (AOR = 1.32; 95% CI 1.05-1.67) and postpartum (AOR = 2.12; 95% CI 1.67-2.68). Conclusions for Practice Mistreatment of women by their provider during childbirth is a pervasive health and human rights violation, and is associated with increased risk for maternal health complications in Uttar Pradesh. Efforts to improve quality of maternal care should include greater training and monitoring of providers to ensure respectful treatment of patients. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives The social positioning (i.e. social status and autonomy) of women in the household facilitates women's access to and decision-making power related to family planning (FP). Women's access to spending money, which may be an indicator of greater social positioning in the household, may also be greater among women who engage in income generating activities for their families, regardless of women's status in the household. However, in both scenarios, access to money may independently afford greater opportunity to obtain family planning services among women. This study seeks to assess whether access to money is associated with FP outcomes independently of women's social positioning in their households. Methods Using survey data from married couples in rural Maharashtra, India (n = 855), crude and adjusted regression was used to assess women's access to their own spending money in relation to past 3 month use of condoms and other forms of contraceptives (pills, injectables, intrauterine device). Results Access to money (59 %) was associated with condom and other contraceptive use (AORs ranged 1.5-1.8). These findings remained significant after adjusting for women's FP decision-making power in the household and mobility to seek FP services. Conclusion While preliminary, findings suggest that access to money may increase women's ability to obtain FP methods, even in contexts where social norms to support women's power in FP decision-making may not be readily adopted. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: To determine the prevalence of non-violent, gender-based forms of maltreatment of women by husbands and in-laws [i.e., gender-based household maltreatment (GBHM)] during pregnancy and postpartum; to clarify the role of GBHM in compromising infant health, and whether this role extends beyond that previously observed for intimate partner violence (IPV). Methods: Cross-sectional, quantitative data were collected from women (ages 15-35) seeking immunizations for their infants <6 months of age (N = 1061) in urban health centers in Mumbai, India. Logistic regression models were constructed to assess associations between maternal abuse (perinatal IPV, in-law violence and GBHM) and recent infant morbidity (diarrhea, respiratory distress, fever, colic and vomiting). Results: More than one in four women (28.4 %) reported IPV during their recent pregnancy and/or during the postpartum period, 2.6 % reported perinatal violence from in-laws, and 49.0 % reported one or more forms of perinatal GBHM. In adjusted regression models that included all forms of family violence and maltreatment, perinatal GBHM remained significantly associated with infant morbidity (AORs 1.4-1.9); perinatal IPV and in-law violence ceased to predict infant morbidity in models including GBHM. Conclusions: Findings indicate that non-violent expressions of gender inequity (e.g., nutritional deprivation, deprivation of sleep, blocking access to health care during pregnancy) are more strongly associated with poor infant health than physical or sexual violence from husbands or in-laws in urban India. These results strongly suggest the need to expand the conception of gender inequities beyond IPV to include non-violent forms of gendered mistreatment in considering their impact on infant health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This study examines the determinants of utilisation of skilled birth attendants (SBAs) amongst 2886 rural women in the state of West Bengal, India, using data from a survey of 2012-2013 conducted by the Birbhum Health and Demographic Surveillance System. Method: Multilevel logit regression models were estimated and qualitative investigations conducted to understand the determinants of utilisation of SBAs in rural West Bengal. Results: Among women who delivered their last child during the 3 years preceding the survey, 69.1 % of deliveries were assisted by SBAs, while 30.9 % were home deliveries without any SBA assistance. Multivariate analysis revealed that apart from socio-demographic and economic factors (such as household affluence, women's education, birth order, uptake of comprehensive ANC check-ups, advice regarding danger signs of pregnancy and household's socio-religious affiliation), supply side factors, such as availability of skilled birth attendants in the village and all-weather roads, have significant effect on seeking skilled assistance. Our findings also show that unobserved factors at village level independently influence uptake of SBA-assisted delivery. Conclusions for Practice: The present findings emphasise that both demand and supply side intervention strategies are essential prerequisites to enhance skilled birth attendance. Ample communication is observed at the individual level, but improving community level outreach and advocacy activities could generate further demand. SBAs can be better integrated by accommodating the socio-religious needs of local communities, such as providing female doctors and doctors with similar socio-religious backgrounds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The consequences of early childbearing on the growth and nutritional status of women in India has not been quantified in previous studies. Our study aimed to fill this gap by analysing the association between early marriage and early childbearing on nutritional status of Indian women, with a focus on Bihar and Andhra Pradesh, the two states accounting for the highest proportion of women marrying and giving first birth before 18 years of age. Our findings revealed that a substantial number of women were married before 18 years and thereby exposed to early pregnancy. Furthermore, a significantly higher proportion of women in the 'thin' category were married before 18 years, both in the Indian sample (33 %, p < 0.001) and in the selected states, Andhra Pradesh (31 %, p < 0.001) and Bihar (43 %, p < 0.001), compared to those women married at higher ages. Similarly, across all our samples women whose first birth was before age 18 years also had a significantly higher probability of being in the 'thin' category across all our samples. This pattern was also observed for associations between early childbirth and anemia levels. We conclude that the net effect of the early age at marriage and age at first birth on nutritional status is significant. Our results underline the need for preventing early marriages and the consequent high adolescent pregnancies in India, particularly in high prevalence states. This will help to improve nutritional status and health care utilisation among women, thereby, prevent maternal and child mortality and thus, achieve the MDGs 4-5. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To quantify the economic burden of maternal health care services on Indian households and examine the levels of expenditure incurred in public and private health care institutions at the national, state and community levels. Cross-sectional population data from the 2004 National Sample Survey Organisation were used, which considered 9,643 households for the analysis where at least one woman received maternal health care services during the year preceding the survey. Multilevel linear regression techniques were used to estimate the effect of household, cluster and state characteristics on the proportion of maternal health care expenditures over total household expenditures. Over 80 % of households reported paying for maternal health care services, with those using private care facilities paying almost 4 times more than those using public facilities. Multilevel analyses show evidence of high burden of maternal health care expenditures, which varied significantly across states according to the level of health care utilisation, and with considerable heterogeneity at the household and community levels. Maternal health care services in India are offered free at the point of delivery, yet many families face significant out-of-pocket expenditures. The recent governmental policy interventions to encourage institutional births by providing nominal financial assistance is a welcome step but this might not help to compensate mothers for other indirect expenditures, especially those living in rural areas and poorer communities who are increasingly seeking care in private facilities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this study is to identify individual level factors that determine the use of skilled birth attendants in India. Data from the cross-sectional, population-based NFHS 3 Survey 2005-06 was used. A sample of 31,797 women, aged 15-49 years, who gave births in the 3 months preceding the survey and for whom information was available on most variables, were included in the analysis. Both bivariate and multivariate techniques were used to determine factors associated with the use of skilled attendants at birth. In the study we found that wealth is one of the strongest determinants of skilled birth attendant use, with the poor being at a disadvantage. There are significant differences in the use of skilled delivery care among the urban and rural populations in India. Women in urban areas are more likely to use skilled attendants. Muslim women and women with lower levels of education are also less likely to avail skilled delivery services. The use of skilled care depended significantly on the place of delivery. Women who gave history of antenatal visits were more likely to have skilled attendants at birth. Our analysis demonstrates that there are several financial, social, regional and cultural barriers to skilled birth attendant use in India. Effective strategies need to be planned to generate demand for skilled birth attendants and reduce barriers to care seeking, especially among rural poor. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To examine experiences of perinatal (in pregnancy or post-partum) abuse from in-laws and to assess associations between such experiences and perinatal intimate partner violence (IPV) from husbands, as reported by Indian women residing in low-income communities in Mumbai. The present study includes both qualitative and quantitative research conducted across two phases of study. The qualitative phase involved face-to-face, semi-structured in-depth interviews ( n = 32) with women seeking health care for their infants (6 months or younger) and self-reporting emotional or physical abuse from their husband. The quantitative arm involved survey data collection ( n = 1,038) from mothers seeking immunization for their infants 6 months or younger at three large Urban Health Centers in Mumbai. Results of the qualitative study documented the occurrence of both non-physical and physical abuse from in-laws during pregnancy and post-partum. Non-physical forms of abuse included forced heavy domestic labor, food denial and efforts toward prevention of medical care acquisition. Quantitative results demonstrated that 26.3% of the sample reported perinatal abuse (non-physical and physical) from in-laws and that women experiencing perinatal sexual or physical IPV from husbands were significantly more likely to report perinatal abuse from in-laws (AOR = 5.33, 95% CI = 3.93-7.23). Perinatal abuse from in-laws is not uncommon among women in India and may be compromising maternal and child health in this context; such abuse is also linked to perinatal violence from husbands. Programs and interventions that screen and address IPV in pregnant and post-partum populations in India should be developed to include consideration of in-laws. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigates the patterns of recording birth weight data in retrospective surveys and their influence on birth weight estimates in less developed countries. We hypothesise that the method of reporting birth weight in surveys influences the classification of infants in the low birth weight category. Population-level data from Demographic and Health Surveys conducted in six selected countries representing different regions of the world were used. Birth weight data were reported in the survey from either an official health card or from mother's memory. Birth weight distributions were examined in detail and revised low birth weight estimates were calculated accounting for potential heaping and data inconsistencies. There were substantial differences in the distribution of birth weights by method of reporting. The percentage of infants with low birth weight was higher in all six countries for birth weight recalled from memory than when reported from a health card. Health cards displayed less clustering on certain digits than memory recalled weights, but were still highly heaped in certain countries. Heaping of birth weight data on multiples of 500 g was also observed irrespective of any differences in method of reporting. The study concludes that the method of recording birth weight data can affect birth weight estimates in developing countries. Health systems in poor countries should initiate efforts to systematically monitor the recording of birth weight data ensuring for both quality and comparability at the international levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]