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Purpose: The prevalence of allergy and asthma symptoms and asthma medication use, which has been extensively studied in elite athletes, has received little attention in recreational roadrunners. Methods: A validated questionnaire was used to determine the prevalence of allergy and asthma symptoms, the use of medication, and allergy specialty attention among recreational roadrunners. Comparison with the published prevalence of allergy and asthma symptoms in Olympic athletes was made. Results: The prevalence of allergy and asthma symptoms were similar in two consecutive yearly surveys (2003, 2004). The response from 2004 was 11% (484 of 4398 runners). The study population was 60% male, 56% Caucasian, 10% non-Caucasian, and 34% undesignated. Subjects competed for 13.2 ± 10.5 yr. Prevalence was 44% for symptoms of allergy, 31% for asthma, and 21% for both. Of those reporting allergy symptoms alone, 0.5% had prescription medications or medication before the race. Those with asthma and allergy or asthma alone were more likely to have prescription medication (allergy and asthma, 32%, P = 0.0001; asthma, 6%, P = 0.001), to take medication before the race (asthma and allergy, 27%, P = 0.0001; asthma, 5%, P = 0.007), or to seek specialty attention and medication (asthma and allergy, 39%, P = 0.0001; asthma, 7%, P = 0.004) than those with allergy symptoms alone. The comparison with results from a survey of Olympic athletes indicates that symptoms of allergy and asthma were more prevalent in recreational athletes (P = 0.0001 to 0.007), but roadrunners were less likely to be taking prescription medication (P = 0.025). Conclusion: These results suggest that the recreational roadrunner is more likely to report symptoms of allergy and/or asthma but less likely to have prescription medication than the Olympic athlete.

Cold Air Inhalation Does Not Affect the Severity of EIB after Exercise or Eucapnic Voluntary Hyperventilation. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 37, No. 4, pp. 544-549, 2005. Introduction: Exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) is thought to result from osmotic and thermal events of air conditioning during exercise at high ventilation rates. The purpose of this study was to evaluate lung function after exercise and eucapnic voluntary hyperventilation (EVH) while breathing both room-temperature and cold-temperature dry bottled air. Methods: Twenty-two subjects were identified as EIB probable by a fall of ≥7% in forced expiratory volume in the first second of exhalation (FEV 1 ) using a 6-min room-temperature EVH challenge (RTEVH; 22.0°C). Subjects then randomly performed three 6-min challenges: cold-temperature EVH (CTEVH; -1°C), room-temperature exercise (RTEX; 22.0°C), and cold-temperature exercise (CTEX; -1°C), with a period of at least 48 h observed between challenges. Spirometry was performed at baseline and at 5, 10, 15, and 20 min postchallenge. Results: Reasonable agreement was found between challenge modes and room-temperature and cold-temperature challenges. Postchallenge percent falls in FEV 1 were -15.21, -13.80, -13.12, and -10.69 for RTEVH, CTEVH, RTEX, and CTEX, respectively. RTEVH resulted in a significantly greater percent fall in FEV 1 than CTEX (P = 0.048); no other differences in FEV 1 were observed. Conclusion: Similar postchallenge percent falls in FEV 1 for room- and cold-temperature EVH and exercise suggest that dryness is essential to test conditions, as cold temperature did not have an additive effect to the EIB response.

The leukotriene receptor antagonist montelukast (ML) attenuates exercise-induced bronchoconstriction (EIB) and its symptoms; however, little is known regarding the acute influence of ML on exercise performance. Purpose: To examine the effects of a single 10-mg dose of ML on physical performance in EIB- and EIB+ athletes. Methods: Twenty-four male college ice hockey players performed two 6-min maximal work accumulation bouts on an electronically braked cycle ergometer in subfreezing conditions (-2.5 ± 0.4°C) 6-8 h after either ML or placebo (PL) to obtain total work accumulated (kJ); subjects were evaluated for EIB after each exercise trial. Results: Eight (33%) subjects were identified as EIB+ (23.5 ± 13.35% fall in FEV 1 ); 16 were EIB- (1.8 ± 3.03% fall in FEV 1 ). ML provided a ∼50% protection against postexercise fall in FEV 1 . No significant differences in kJ were found between PL and ML trials for pooled subjects (95.3 ± 13.69 and 94.8 ± 13.27 kJ, respectively), EIB - subjects (99.6 ± 13.26 and 99.0 ± 11.81 kJ, respectively), or EIB+ subjects (86.8 ± 10.67 and 86.5 ± 12.72 kJ, respectively). Total work accumulated for EIB- subjects was significantly greater than for EIB+ subjects for both PL and ML (P < 0.05). Conclusion: A single 10-mg dose of ML had no ergogenic effect for EIB - and EIB + subjects performing short-duration high-intensity exercise in subfreezing temperature, supporting the use of ML as EIB prophylaxis during international sport competition.

Purpose: In practice, tests of maximal oxygen uptake (VO 2max ) are often preceded by a lactate profile, a highly intense but submaximal exercise bout. The VO 2max response to preceding high-intensity submaximal exercise, with or without a rest period, has not been determined. If VO 2max is limited after a lactate profile, exercise-induced hypoxemia (EIH) may explain the deficit. The purposes of this study were to: 1) examine the effects of high-intensity submaximal exercise, with or without rest, on subsequent VO 2max ; and 2) evaluate the role of EIH in causing any observed changes. Methods: Ten healthy, well-trained, male cross-country skiers (age = 20.5 ± 4.7 yr, height = 181.6 ± 6.0 cm, mass = 72.1 ± 5.7 kg) completed three exercise trials: an incremental run to fatigue (MAX), MAX preceded by a high-intensity submaximal run (lactate profile) and a 20-min rest period (discontinuous protocol [DC]), and MAX preceded by a high-intensity submaximal exercise run with no rest (continuous protocol [C]). VO 2 , minute ventilation, and arterial oxygen saturation were measured throughout, and diffusion capacity was evaluated 2 min postexercise. Results: No significant between trial differences were observed, although the difference between VO 2 determined during the MAX trial (62.7 ± 6.7 mL.kg -1 .min 1 ) and during the DC trial (58.3 ± 4.4 mL.kg -1 .min 1 ) approached significance (P = 0.059). DC VO 2max responses could be separated into two groups: five responders whose VO 2max suffered during the DC trial (decreased >7.5% from MAX) and five nonresponders, whose VO 2max was unaffected by preceding submaximal exercise and a rest period. Responders showed greater aerobic capacity during the MAX trial. Conclusion: VO 2max is significantly reduced in approximately 50% of cross-country skiers when a maximal exercise test is preceded by high-intensity submaximal exercise and a 20 min rest period; the role of EIH in causing these reductions is unclear.

Purpose The asthmatic airway responds to exercise by bronchodilation (BD) during and bronchoconstriction (BC) after exercise. A refractory period induced by an initial exercise challenge that provides protection against BC during a subsequent exercise bout has also been observed. However, no studies examining during-exercise response or refractoriness during long-duration field exercise by elite athletes have been performed. This study examined airway response and refractoriness during approximately 42-min cross-country ski time trial preceded by a 6- to 9-min 2.5-km high-intensity warm-up ski. Methods Eighteen elite athletes cross-country skied seven successive 2.5-km loops. Spirometry was performed pre- and at 5, 10, and 15 min post loop 1; loops 2-7 were treated as a race (XCR) with maneuvers performed within 20 s after loops 2-6 and serially for 15 min after lap 7. Results Nine of 18 subjects demonstrated a >or=10% fall from baseline in FEV(1) (EIB+): five after lap 1 and four during or after laps 2-7. FEV(1) for EIB+ athletes during XCR was not different from post lap 1 FEV. Only one EIB+ subject demonstrated significant refractoriness. Four EIB+ athletes had a less than 10% fall in FEV after the initial 2.5-km exercise challenge but developed EIB (>or=10% fall) during the subsequent 6 x 2.5 km XCR exercise challenge. FEF(25-75) falls mirrored FEV(1), but demonstrated greater BD during XCR. Conclusion Bronchoconstriction occurs in athletes during prolonged exercise and may thus influence performance. Variability in bronchial hyperresponsiveness onset and the lack of significant refractoriness in our study cohort of athletes is consistent with an exercise bronchoconstrictive dysfunction that is different than frank asthma and is yet to be clearly defined.

WILBER, R. L., K. W. RUNDELL, L. SZMEDRA, D. M. JENKINSON, J. IM, and S. D. DRAKE. Incidence of exercise-induced bronchospasm in Olympic winter sport athletes. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc., Vol. 32, No. 4, pp. 732‐737, 2000. Purpose: The purpose of this project was to determine the incidence of exercise-induced bronchospasm (EIB) among U.S. Olympic winter sport athletes. Methods: Subjects included female and male members of the 1998 U.S. Winter Olympic Team from the following sports: biathlon, cross-country ski, figure skating, ice hockey, Nordic combined, long-track speedskating, and short-track speedskating. Assessment of EIB was conducted in conjunction with an “actual competition” (Olympic Trials, World Team Trials, World Cup Event, U.S. National Championships) or a “simulated competition” (time trial, game), which served as the exercise challenge. Standard spirometry tests were performed preexercise and at 5, 10, and 15 min postexercise. An athlete was considered EIB-positive based on a postexercise decrement in FEV1 $ 10%. Results: For the seven sports evaluated on the 1998 U.S. Winter Olympic Team, the overall incidence of EIB across all sports and genders was 23%. The highest incidence of EIB was found in cross-country skiers, where 50% of the athletes (female 5 57%; male 5 43%) were diagnosed with EIB. Across the seven sports evaluated, the prevalence of EIB among the female and male athletes was 26% and 18%, respectively. Among those individuals found to be EIB-positive were athletes who won a team gold medal, one individual silver medal, and one individual bronze medal at the Nagano Winter Olympics. Conclusions: These data suggest that: 1) EIB is prevalent in several Olympic winter sports and affects nearly one of every four elite winter sport athletes; 2) the winter sport with the highest incidence of EIB is cross-country skiing; 3) in general, EIB is more prevalent in female versus male elite winter sport

The "sitting" posture of speed skating may result in compromised blood flow to the working muscles, thus limiting oxygen uptake. To examine this metabolic problem, male (N = 7) short track speed skaters performed running (TR), in-line skating upright (US), and in-line skating in the "sitting" position (LS) on a motor driven treadmill on randomized days. Each test consisted of four 4-min stages at 2.24, 2.68, 3.13, and 3.58 m.s-1 (5, 6, 7, and 8 mph) at 5% incline. After a brief rest, athletes performed at 4.03 m.s-1 (9 mph) with elevation increasing 1% each minute to exhaustion. Two on-ice 1000-m time trials (TT) were performed to assess the relationship between performance and laboratory measurements. Peak VO2 was lower during LS (57.2 +/- 2.7, 62.3 +/- 4.0, and 64.3 +/- 1.6; for LS, US, and TR, respectively; P < 0.05). At equivalent speeds, submaximal O2 uptake was lower for LS and blood lactate was higher (P < 0.05). LS peak VO2 (ml.kg-1.min-1) was strongly related to TT (P < 0.05). The depressed VO2 and higher blood lactate during LS may be related to decreased knee or trunk angle. Peak VO2 values during skating did not approach values during running. Evaluation of speed skaters in a sports-specific test is congruent with performance and demonstrates potential in addressing the unique physiological demands of the sport.

We have previously hypothesized restricted muscle blood flow during speed skating, secondary to the high intramuscular forces intrinsic to the unique posture assumed by speed skaters and to the prolonged duty cycle of the skating stroke.To test this hypothesis, we studied speed skaters (N = 10) during submaximal and maximal cycling and in-line skating, in both low (knee angle = 107 degrees) and high (knee angle = 112 degrees) skating positions (CE vs SkL vs SkH). Supportive experiments evaluated muscle desaturation and lactate accumulation during on-ice speed skating and muscle desaturation during static exercise at different joint positions.Consistent with the hypothesis were reductions during skating in VO2peak (4.28 vs 3.83 vs 4.26 L x min(-1)), the VO2 at 4 mmol x L(-1) blood lactate (3.38 vs 1.93 vs 3.31 L x min(-1)), and cardiac output during maximal exercise (33.2 vs 25.3 vs 25.6 L x min(-1)). The reduction in maximal cardiac output was not attributable to differences in HRmax (197 vs 192 vs 193 b x min(-1)) but to a reduction in SVmax (172 vs 135 vs 134 mL x beat(-1)). The reduction in SV appeared to be related to an increased calculated systemic vascular resistance (354 vs 483 vs 453 dynes x s(-1) x cm(-1)). During maximal skating there was also a greater % O2 desaturation of the vastus lateralis based on near infrared spectrophotometry (50.3 vs 74.9 vs 60.4% of maximal desaturation during cuff ischemia). The results were supported by greater desaturation with smaller knee angles during static exercise and by greater desaturation and accelerated blood lactate accumulation during on-ice speed skating in the low vs high position. The results of this study support the hypothesis that physiological responses during speed skating are dominated by restriction of blood flow, attributable either to high intramuscular forces, the long duty cycle of the skating stroke, or both.