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The European Union took its first strategic step on the topic of climate adaptation in 2009 with publication of a White Paper on Adaptation. Since its publication, many researchers and analysts have criticized the White Paper for its lack of concrete and enforceable actions. In this paper, we analyse the White Paper as an instrument of soft law. First, we provide background on the theory of soft law, its terms of applicability, and the standards by which to judge its success. Second, we analyse the content and context of the White Paper according to soft law principles. We find that the conditions under which the White Paper was adopted were exactly those suited to a soft law approach and highly determined by the European multi-level governance context. As such, the White Paper has managed to achieve several of the common objectives of soft law in particular in setting up processes allowing information-sharing and subsidiarity. However it has failed to achieve several others especially in fostering the commitment of the states, and in moving the European Union in the direction of binding regulation. Further strategy development will be required to fix these deficiencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Worldwide, paper production is a major industry that contributes about 3 percent of Gross World Product. The paper cycle involves a broadrange of natural resource and environmental impacts because fiber supply relies on trees, paper manufacturing requires fuel inputs, and paper waste disposal can contribute to emissions of the potent greenhouse gas (GHG), methane (CH4). In some countries, the papercycle may be seen as a net sink for GHG because of reliance on renewable wood by-products and the maintenance of forest plantations. On aworldwide basis, however, this study demonstrates that the paper cycle is a significant contributor to GHG emissions, adding emissions atleast comparable in magnitude to that of Australia each year. The estimated global warming contribution of paper in landfills is estimated to be similar to that of paper manufacturing processes, on a heating-equivalent basis. In some temperate regions, original old-growth forests are still harvested to supply pulpwood, resulting in a significant loss of carbon (C) storage. In theory, the paper cycle holds the promise of achieving zero net emissions if pulpwood production, consumption and disposal are carefully managed. In practice, even stabilization of emissions at current levels would be challenging and entail changes comparable to a 20 percent reduction in CH4 generation from landfilled paper, and a 2.5 percent annual increase in plantation establishment would be needed to offset the projected increasein emissions from paper manufacturing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Kirschbaum (Mitig Adapt Strat Glob Change 11:1151-1164, 2006) explores the climatic impact over time of temporarily sequestering carbon from the atmosphere. He concludes that temporary storage of carbon in the terrestrial biosphere ''achieves effectively no climate-change mitigation''. His strongly worded statement begs for a response. This paper argues that Kirschbaum's conclusion is an artifact of the specific perspective of his analysis and his choice of a definition for climate-change impact. Even temporary sinks put us on a lower path for climate change, a path that will not otherwise be accessible. For carbon sinks in the terrestrial biosphere, we argue that sooner is better and longer is better, but even known temporary sinks have value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many climate change responses focus on form rather than substance. As a result, they invariably look at the consequences but ignore the drivers of climate change. Since past approaches towards climate change adaptation have had limited success, the most effective and sustainable way to minimize future climate change impacts on humanity is through transformative adaptation (TA). This paper defines and characterizes the conceptual foundations of this term and outlines how TA influences current and future climate change adaptation challenges. This paper reviews the meaning and purpose of transformation in climate change adaptation and, by means of a set of case studies, explains how their commonalities can help define good TA practice. Deploying a range of situations, this study shows how this approach is being implemented in a set of countries, and considers its potential transformative impact, its benefits, and challenges. The results obtained have shown that when implemented with due care, TA can yield long-term benefits to local communities. The paper conclude by listing some measures by which TA may be further deployed as a means of helping communities to meet the future challenges posed by a changing climate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change, through extreme weather events and slow onset climatic changes, disrupts the operation of transport networks, and those in low-income countries (LICs) across Africa and South Asia are particularly vulnerable to climate change. This paper explores the barriers that LICs face across Africa and South Asia regarding preparedness of transport infrastructure to climate change, with the intent of addressing the knowledge gaps and consequential needs of LICs to support the delivery of more climate-resilient transport. Literature on climate change adaptation and transport resilience among LICs is reviewed to identify the broad challenges and barriers regarding climate change adaptation. Semi-structured interviews with 13 transport stakeholders across Africa and South Asia were also conducted to understand the challenges specific to the transport sector in the regions. Several barriers were identified, including a lack of data and knowledge on climate change impacts, design and prioritisation of remedial actions, budgeting and planning for climate change, and identifying and engaging with stakeholders. Findings from this paper and the wider research project it comprises inform policy guidance that calls for greater national and international coordination to develop practical, relevant and usable data, tools, advice and support for some of the most at-risk transport networks to climate change in the world. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Globally, climate change funding has become a focal point and debate among international organisations, private agencies, governments, and civil societies mainly because of its significant threats to social, economic, and the environment and the significant funds needed to adapt and mitigate its impacts. While substantial amounts of funds have been secured and distributed to governments, private organisations and institutions in the continent to mitigate and cope with the threats of climate variabilities, the outcomes have failed to meet the desired outcomes due to limited access to funding, lack of transparency in allocations and the failure of the funds to reach local communities where the impacts are significantly felt. Using a conventional approach of data collection tools predominantly of quantitative and qualitative methods and extensive literature materials, this paper explored the complexities and constraints of sourcing climate change funding and the mechanisms of distribution funds across the continent. The findings unearthed that climate funding lacks transparency and equitable distribution; furthermore, there are substantial bureaucratic processes, capacity constraints and immense conflicting priorities among countries on the continent. Our findings uncovered that addressing these anomalies will require innovative funding structures that catalyse technical assistance programmes to support the creation of new avenues for climate finance as well as reforming global financial institutions, emphasising debt reductions, freeing up additional funding for climate change mitigation and adaptation, and channelling private finance to both climate and sustainable development, particularly in the more vulnerable countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change has become one of the most compelling fields of empirical research over the last couple of decades, partly due to its socio-economic impacts. Using a meta-analysis of 235 peer-reviewed articles published between January 2010 and July 2020, this paper appraises climate change adaptation (CCA) research in Nepal and draws lessons for future adaptation planning. The number of research is observed to have increased significantly in recent years (2015–2020) although there is no consistent pattern over the review period and at the thematic level. Findings submit that the agriculture and food security has the highest number of publications (37%) followed by gender equality and social inclusion (18%) and forest, biodiversity and watershed management (16%). There are no studies found in rural and urban settlement theme. Geographic distribution of CCA studies revealed that over 40% studies were carried out from central Nepal, while no study was conducted in ten districts of eastern and western Nepal. The study focus was also discrete, and the perception and attitude and impact assessment of climate change were common agendas; however, the drivers of change and options for adaptation were understudied. CCA with multipronged initiatives provide a broader understanding of dynamics and governance of climate change that not only affects rural livelihoods, but also influences regional and global environments and biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is one of the greatest problems the Earth is currently facing, and efforts to alleviate its effects are most often carried out within the framework of two main strategies: mitigation and adaptation. Both of these strategies are necessary for today’s urban planning processes, and it is therefore important that they are considered together. However, there may be conflicts if urban spatial decisions support one strategy while having adverse effects on the other. This contradiction between mitigation and adaptation then raises the question of which one of two conflicting strategies is more important for the urban spatial development of a given city. This paper aims to determine whether a city should give priority to mitigation or adaptation by examining the spatial development dynamics. These strategies have prioritized for urban built-up areas in the case of Turkey’s central cities. According to the long-term results, 23 out of 81 Turkish central cities were identified as mitigation-priority, 43 as adaptation-priority, and 15 as equal-weighted. It is hoped that the method used in this paper will be useful for cities in developing countries which have not yet prepared a local climate policy or urban climate action plan. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate-induced increase in temperature and rainfall variability severely threaten the agricultural sector and food security in the Indian state of Odisha. Climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices, such as crop rotation and integrated soil management, help farmers adapt to climate risk and contribute to a reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Therefore, this paper examines the impact of CSA practices on yield and income in vulnerable semi-arid districts of Odisha—Balangir, Kendrapara, and Mayurbhanj. We use primary survey data from 494 households collected in 2019–2020, using a multi-stage stratified sampling approach and structured questionnaire. Propensity score matching (PSM) and the two-stage least square method (2SLS) have been used to analyze the impact of CSA on income and productivity. Two instrument variables, namely distance to the extension office and percentage of adopters in a village, are used to control self-selection bias and endogeneity in our model. Both models show a positive and significant impact of the adoption of CSA on farmers’ productivity and income. The study sheds light on the significant contribution of CSA practices in fostering sustainable income growth amid environmental challenges. Overall, our results suggest that small and marginal farmers of Eastern India, a highly environmentally vulnerable area, can significantly improve their income and productivity by adopting CSA technology. Hence, policymakers should scale the adoption of CSA technology through effective extension programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To pursue just, inclusive, and participatory climate adaptation planning and policy, it is important to understand both regional climate trends and the ecological services that reduce vulnerability and exposure to climate risks at the community level. Rapidly growing cities like Tijuana and San Diego are doubly exposed to climate change because they have fewer resources to confront them and yet responsible for basic services that support everyday life of their residents, challenges that are complicated by the divided institutional and social context of an international border region. In the binational context, the regional community is fragmented by institutional, academic, and cultural factors, leading to adaptation planning that stops at the border despite the shared ecological setting of human settlements. This fragmentation is particularly dangerous for climate adaptation planning because it obscures inequalities as well as opportunities contained in the binational region. To address this deficit, we have synthesized information from a variety of regional spatial datasets to construct a continuous binational social vulnerability index (BSVI) at the census tract level across the San Diego-Tijuana border region. This paper details the datasets and methodology used to create the BSVI and explores some of the preliminary results of the analysis by juxtaposing this score with spatially explicit information on vegetation cover and climate projections of heat and rainfall extremes across the region. We close with a discussion on use of this research as a tool for local environmental justice and regional adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sea levels have been rising at an increasing rate in the past decades, due to the increased ocean temperatures and glacier melt caused by global warming. The continued increase in sea levels will result in large-scale impacts in coastal areas as they are submerged by the sea. Locations not able to bear the costs of implementing protection and adaptation measures will have to be abandoned, resulting in social, economic, and environmental losses. The most important mitigation goal for sea level rise is to reduce or possibly revert carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. However, given the magnitude and long time lag between emissions and impacts, new adaptation measures to reduce sea level rise should be proposed, developed and if possible, implemented. This paper suggests that submerged barriers or dams built in front of ice sheets and glaciers would contribute to reducing the ice melt in Greenland. The ten proposed barriers or dams in this paper could prevent the contribution to sea level rise by up to 5.3 m at a cost of US$ 0.275 billion a year. This is much lower when compared to adaptation measures to sea level rise around the world estimated to be US$ 1.4 trillion a year by 2100. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Risk-based insurance is a commonly proposed and discussed flood risk adaptation mechanism in policy debates across the world such as in the United Kingdom and the United States of America. However, both risk-based premiums and growing risk pose increasing difficulties for insurance to remain affordable. An empirical concept of affordability is required as the affordability of adaption strategies is an important concern for policymakers, yet such a concept is not often examined. Therefore, a robust metric with a commonly acceptable affordability threshold is required. A robust metric allows for a previously normative concept to be quantified in monetary terms, and in this way, the metric is rendered more suitable for integration into public policy debates. This paper investigates the degree to which risk-based flood insurance premiums are unaffordable in Europe. In addition, this paper compares the outcomes generated by three different definitions of unaffordability in order to investigate the most robust definition. In doing so, the residual income definition was found to be the least sensitive to changes in the threshold. While this paper focuses on Europe, the selected definition can be employed elsewhere in the world and across adaption measures in order to develop a common metric for indicating the potential unaffordability problem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Coal-fired power plants (CPPs) are important participants in the field of climate change. Many CPPs rely on large amounts of water, which makes them vulnerable to climate change. Through the theoretical modeling and case study, the paper investigated the climate change adaptation strategies of CPPs from both short-run and long-run perspectives. In the short-run, the role of increasing cooling water intake to adapt to the adverse climate conditions is limited by local water supply capacity, environmental regulations, and existing technology. In the long-run, the CPP operator’s adaptation retrofitting decisions are affected by multiple factors including the expected impacts of climate change, remaining lifespan, initial retrofit cost, and interest rate. But climate change information may not make difference to CPP operators’ adaptation decisions in some circumstances. No matter adaptation retrofit can bring “additional benefits,” the government’s incentive policies can induce the CPP operator to invest in adaptation retrofit no later than when the impacts of climate change appear. The incentive policies’ ability to promote adaptation strategies to break through the profit threshold is the key to achieve the government’s expected adaptation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of wood products is often promoted as a climate change mitigation option to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations. In previous literature, we identified longevity and recycling rate as two determining factors that influence the carbon stock in wood products, but no studies have predicted the effect of improved wood use on carbon storage over time. In this study, we aimed at evaluating changes in the lifespan and the recycling rate as two options for enhancing carbon stock in wood products for different time horizons. We first explored the behaviour over time of both factors in a theoretical simulation, and then calculated their effect for the European wood sector of the future. The theoretical simulation shows that the carbon stock in wood products increases linearly when increasing the average lifespan of wood products and exponentially when improving the recycling rate. The emissions savings under the current use of wood products in Europe in 2030 were estimated at 57.65 Mt carbon dioxide (CO) per year. This amount could be increased 5 Mt CO if average lifespan increased 19.54 % or if recycling rate increased 20.92 % in 2017. However, the combination of both strategies could increase the emissions saving almost 5 Mt CO more by 2030. Incrementing recycling rate of paper and paperboard is the best short-term strategy (2030) to reduce emissions, but elongating average lifespan of wood-based panels is a better strategy for longer term periods (2046). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Providing decision makers and the investment community with transparent methods to value investments in resilience and adaptation measures to protect physical assets from climate change impacts is becoming increasingly critical. To address this need, this paper introduces and utilizes the decoupled net present value (DNPV) valuation methodology. DNPV is a robust method that can incorporate climate change risk into investment analyses. This paper also discusses how the widespread use of traditional valuation methods such as net present value combined with risk-adjusted discount rates introduces a pernicious time bias effect that magnifies stakeholders' misaligned interests and investment horizons, leading investors, both public and private, to significantly underinvest in resilience and adaptation. Furthermore, because traditional valuation methods cannot correlate physical risks (e.g., loss of revenue due to physical damage or lost access to an asset) with discount rates, investments to reduce climate change risks are largely considered as expenses that make the investment less attractive. The DNPV method addresses this issue and offers a viable alternative that can consistently and transparently quantify all risks (market and non-market) in terms of cash flows. This allows investors and stakeholders to quantify in monetary terms the potential exposure of physical assets to climate-related hazards and assess the effect of decisions to invest in resilience and adaptation measures. With the aid of a simple numerical example, the DNPV method is used to illustrate how such actions can be treated as quantifiable risk reduction investment opportunities that result in better investment decisions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Public adaptation to climate change affects government budgets directly on the expenditure side, but also indirectly via changes in the tax base and government consumption patterns. While such indirect effects have been analyzed intensively for mitigation policies, similarly detailed model-based frameworks and studies for adaptation policy are still missing. The objectives of the present paper are (i) to fill this gap by proposing a general modeling framework that allows for a comprehensive analysis of effects of adaptation on federal budgets, both on the expenditure and the revenue side, as well as of macroeconomic effects and (ii) to demonstrate its usefulness by applying this framework to the case of Austria. We find that public adaptation can lead to substantial positive macroeconomic effects on gross domestic product (GDP), welfare, and employment. The results are robust with respect to assumptions about the effectiveness of adaptation. Also, we demonstrate that it is essential for analysis to cover both the expenditure and revenue side, as overall government revenues can increase due to adaptation, offsetting additional direct public expenses for adaptation, thus increasing the budget balance. This is because of less severe climate change impacts and the corresponding lower payments for post-disaster relief and unemployment benefits as well as higher tax revenues. We thus strongly recommend making use of economy-wide modeling frameworks when planning for adaptation, as they shed light on the true costs and benefits of adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a global analysis of the link between annual total energy use and temperature. A statistical model is used to estimate this link based on a panel dataset from 147 countries over the years 1990–2015. Results show that rich and poor countries exhibit differential response functions to temperature changes for annual total energy use. Unmitigated climate change by 2095 is projected to increase global total energy use on average by 24.0% relative to a baseline coupled with income and population growth without climate change. Poor countries are projected to face a larger increase in their energy use than rich countries over the years 2016–2095 and thus the projected impacts of future global warming on total energy use vary spatially—low-income countries will face significant increases, while cooler countries will experience reductions. Policy-makers need to incorporate socioeconomic factors and climate uncertainty into the projection of future climate change impacts on global energy use. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efforts to mitigate climate threats should not exclude the household as the household is a major driver of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions through its consumption patterns. This paper derives an emission index that could be used to estimate inventories of carbon dioxide (CO) emissions from kerosene combustion for lighting in Nigeria and also looks at the implications of solar pv lighting replacing kerosene lamp in Nigeria. Findings indicate that (1) average CO emissions from kerosene combustion for lighting in Nigeria is about 0.06 kg per hour per lamp, which can be taken as the kerosene lamp CO emission index for Nigeria. (2) about 3 × 10W solar pv will be required to replace a kerosene lamp, while about 0.124 tonnes of CO will be avoided per lamp per year, operating at 6 h daily. At the national level, under the kerosene lamp replacement projection assumptions made, between 0.4 and 1.0 million tonnes of CO will be avoided per year. The household investment required to owe a solar pv, including the capital cost of switching from kerosene lamp, is about US$356, while the national capital investment outlay is between 1,138.265 and US$2,848 million. (3) Certified Emission Reduction (CER) units, assuming CO is traded, will generate significant annual revenues on the order of 6.96 to almost US$17.4 million per year, while earnings from unspent household kerosene fuel could amount to between 2,520 and US$6,300 million over the life span of the solar pv. The micro-economic assessment carried out indicates the non-attractiveness of solar pv use at the household level, and (4) to promote solar pv use, both long and short term policy measures that aim at cost reduction were suggested. The paper concludes that, factoring the suggested measures into the climate, energy, and financial policy decision discourse in Nigeria could empower the households to play a significant role in achieving global CO emission reduction, but at the local level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Our planet is increasingly threatened by degradation in water quantity and quality due to climate change, population growth and development pressures. Water shortage is one of the most challenging environmental problems to humankind in the 21st century under the changing climate. Water shortages and scarcity escalate risks to food security and economic viability. For decades, water management has been dominated by supply oriented paradigm of expanding the capacity of accessible water (e.g. building dams). While large scale infrastructure projects provided effective solutions for chronic water crises in the past, they have come at expensive, irreversible and delayed ecological, economic and social costs. As more questions are raised concerning over reliance on infrastructure solutions, discussions about a sustainable future suggest a greater focus on the demand side of the equation is needed. In this paper, we use multi-recursive and runoff coefficient analysis methods to analyze the annual runoff of the mainstreams (Kuye River, Tuwei River, Wuding River and Jialu River) in the middle reaches of Yellow River. The main objective is to estimate the impacts of climate change and human activity on water resources in the study area and test the potential of water demand management to lessen the gap between supply and demand. Results show remarkable drop in the average annual runoff as a combined effect of climate change and human activity. Moreover, results show that human activities are the direct reason for the changes of river runoff, and the proportion of human activities account the biggest is Wuding river, next is Kuye river, Jialu river is smallest, these changes lead to the decrease of river runoff, and even drying up in recent years. This result highlights the importance of using WDM to diminish the increasing gap between demand and supply. Motivated by this, the paper presents a comprehensive framework for implementation WDM in the middle reaches of Yellow River. The framework includes a wide range of instruments: legislative, economic, technological and educational. The core step of the framework, collaboration among water planners, water service providers and end-users lies as an essential mechanism for achieving long term trade-offs between ecological and socio-economic water needs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nowadays, adaptation has become a key focus of the scientific and policy-making communities and is a major area of discussion in the multilateral climate change process. As climate change is projected to hit the poorest the hardest, it is especially important for developing countries to pay particular attention to the management of natural resources and agricultural activities. In most of these countries such as Cameroon, forest can play important role in achieving broader climate change adaptation goals. However, forest generally receives very little attention in national development programme and strategies such as policy dialogues on climate change and poverty reduction strategies. Using a qualitative approach to data collection through content analysis of relevant Cameroon policy documents, the integration of climate change adaptation was explored and the level of attention given to forests for adaptation analysed. Results indicate that, with the exception of the First National Communication to UNFCCC that focused mostly on mitigation and related issues, current policy documents in Cameroon are void of tangible reference to climate change, and hence failing in drawing the relevance of forest in sheltering populations from the many projected impacts of climate change. Policies related to forest rely on a generalized concept of sustainable forest management and do not identify the specific changes that need to be incorporated into management strategies and policies towards achieving adaptation. The strategies and recommendations made in those documents only serve to improve understanding of Cameroon natural resources and add resilience to the natural systems in coping with anthropogenic stresses. The paper draws attention to the need to address the constraints of lack of awareness and poor flow of information on the potentials of forests for climate change adaptation. It highlights the need for integrating forest for adaptation into national development programmes and strategies, and recommends a review of the existing environmental legislations and their implications on poverty reduction strategy and adaptation to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global climate change mitigation needs all countries’ efforts under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change’s guideline of equity and common but differentiated responsibilities and respective capabilities. The medium-to-long term regional emissions pathways simulated by integrated assessment models with global mitigation costs minimized to achieve the 2 °C goal might be very different from the regional emissions allowances allocated based on effort-sharing principles. Global carbon trading is a cost-effective mechanism to bridge the gap. Insight of previous papers has mainly focused on the impact of a single effort-sharing scheme on global carbon market, while this study attempts to explore the scale and benefit of global carbon market under different effort-sharing principles to achieve the 2 °C goal, with the application of a consistent modeling framework, consisting of an integrated assessment model and an effort-sharing platform. The results indicate that scale of global carbon market would be highly related with the effort-sharing principles. The global trading volumes would change from 1.8 Gigatons (Gt) carbon dioxide (CO2) to over 12 GtCO2 per year and largely peak between 2030 and 2040 under different kinds of effort-sharing principles. Correspondingly, annual global finance flows in the carbon market would increase gradually and reach the scale of hundreds of billions United States (US) dollars since 2020. Global carbon market would lower the abatement costs of developed countries, and the overall global abatement costs would drop by 0.4-2.6% during 2011-2050. The developing countries would not only acquire revenues from global carbon trading but also be provided with an opportunity to accelerate their domestic low-carbon energy transformation, local environmental improvement, job creation, and economic development. Linking national and regional carbon markets to develop global carbon market will be critical to maximize the utility of the market mechanism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is occurring with greater speed and intensity that previously anticipated. All effective environmentally and socially sound mitigation efforts need to be employed to effectively address this global crisis. Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) projects can provide significant climate change mitigation benefits as well as poverty alleviation and biodiversity conservation benefits. The policies of the European Union Emissions Trading Scheme (EU-ETS), the world's largest carbon market exclude LULUCF. Scientific support for this exclusion was presented in a briefing paper published by the Climate Action Network-Europe (CAN) that puts forward the proposition that land based storage of carbon is ineffective. A careful review of the scientific papers cited in support of CAN's position indicates that, while the papers themselves are scientifically sound, they do not support the continued exclusion of LULUCF projects from the EU-ETS. At the same time some important recent research papers that describe the carbon storage and social benefit potential of such projects are not included in the analysis. An in-depth consideration of the scientific evidence is necessary in evaluating this policy option. Based on this evidence a case can be made for the inclusion of LULUCF projects in the EU-ETS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The papers in this Special Issue are the primary technical underpinnings for the Northeast Climate Impacts Assessment (NECIA), an integrated regional-scale assessment of projected climate change, impacts and options for mitigation and adaptation across the US Northeast. The consequences of future pathways of greenhouse gas emissions on projected climate and impacts across climate-sensitive sectors is assessed by using downscaled projections from three global climate models under both higher (Alfi) and lower (B1) emissions scenarios. The findings illustrate that near-term reductions in emissions can greatly reduce the extent and severity of regionally important impacts on natural and managed ecosystems and public health in the latter half of this century, and increase the feasibility that those impacts which are now unavoidable can be successfully managed through adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adaptation to climate change is a necessary response to reduce risk and vulnerability and to realize opportunities. However, not all adaptation measures bring about positive changes. In some cases, local-level adaptations may shift risks to other vulnerable places and communities. Both maladaptation, generally recognized to be undesirable at least in terms of the results it generates, and sustainable adaptation has been studied in diverse settings and for a range of climate-related risks. Sustainable adaptation aims at reducing poverty and enhancing social equity and environmental integrity in concert with risk reduction. However, there is limited research on how interventions by state and non-state implementing entities differ in addressing issues related to sustainable adaptation and the threat of maladaptation. In this paper, we use case study analysis to focus on three specific adaptation interventions—homestead plinth level raise, pond sand filter for safe drinking water, and surface and groundwater irrigation—in Bangladesh. Drawing on in-depth interviews with stakeholders facing recurring drought and coastal hazards, we emphasis on the implemented interventions and the roles played by a local NGO and central government. The first two interventions were implemented by a local NGO and the irrigation system by the government. Although the selected interventions led to many benefits, including reduced community vulnerability, enhanced resilience, and adaptive capacity, the stakeholders also identified sustainability challenges. NGO-implemented interventions, for example, suffer from beneficiary selection bias, while state-implemented intervention does not conform, at least partly, to environmental integrity. To limit maladaptation, it is necessarily better to understand beneficiary attitude(s) towards an intervention. Findings can help inform future interventions by raising awareness of agencies’ roles and responsibilities in implementation and recognizing the stakeholders’ adaptation needs and priorities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Increased use of bioenergy, driven by ambitious climate and energy policies, has led to an upsurge in international bioenergy trade. Simultaneously, it is evident that every node of the bioenergy supply chain, from cultivation of energy crops to production of electricity and heat, is vulnerable to climate change impacts. However, climate change assessments of bioenergy supply chains neither account for the global nature of the bioenergy market, nor the complexity and dynamic interconnectivity between and within different sub-systems in which the bioenergy supply chain is embedded, thereby neglecting potential compounding and cascading impacts of climate change. In this paper, systems thinking is utilised to develop an analytical framework to address this gap, and aided by causal loop diagrams, cascading impacts of climate change are identified for a case study concerning imports of wood pellets from the United States to the European Union. The findings illustrate how the complexity and interconnectivity of the wood pellet supply system predispose the supply chain to various cascading climate change impacts stemming from environmental, social, political and economic domains, and highlight the value of using system-based analysis tools for studying such complex and dynamic systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Activities are already underway within the development community to improve climate-change adaptation decision making. In these and related efforts, a focus on building resilience is an important objective, one that resonates with development objectives. Compiling and applying indicators will help development practitioners consider resilience in projects, plans, and decision making. Exactly how to do this is a challenging, but important task. Drawing on diverse methods in the literature, this paper identifies factors important to understanding the evolution of resilience over time and space, and suggests a framework for developing indicators that analysts might select as useful for particular places or sectors. The paper lays the groundwork for an assessment framework that can make future development and adaptation choices more resilient. The framework is intended as a starting point for wider discussions of factors that contribute to building resilience and thus provide the basis to develop a toolkit of metrics and approaches. These discussions will need to bridge research on climate-change adaptation and resilience with practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes a comparative study of four different cases on vulnerability, hazards and adaptive capacity to climate threats in coastal areas and communities in four developing countries: Bangladesh, Brazil, Cameroon and Uruguay. Coastal areas are vulnerable to sea-level rise (SLR), storm surges and flooding due to their (i) exposure, (ii) concentration of settlements, many of which occupied by less advantaged groups and (iii) the concentration of assets and services seen in these areas. The objective of the paper is twofold: (i) to evaluate current evidence of coastal vulnerability and adaptive capacity and (ii) to compare adaptation strategies being implemented in a sample of developing countries, focusing on successful ones. The followed approach for the case evaluation is based on (i) documenting observed threats and damages, (ii) using indicators of physical and socioeconomic vulnerability and adaptive capacity status and (iii) selecting examples of successful responses. Major conclusions based on cross-case comparison are (a) the studied countries show different vulnerability, adaptive capacity and implementation of responses, (b) innovative community-based (CBA) and ecosystem-based adaptation (EbA) and (c) early warning systems are key approaches and tools to foster climate resilience. A recommendation to foster the resilience of coastal communities and services is that efforts in innovative adaptation strategies to sea-level rise should be intensified and integrated with climate risk management within the national adaption plans (NAPAs) in order to reduce the impacts of hazards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human migration is increasingly seen as a promising climate change adaptation and flood risk reduction strategy. The purpose of this paper is to investigate how spatial differences in flood risk, due to differences in flood protection, reduce the mobility of vulnerable households through a credit constraint mechanism. Using an equilibrium model with two households types and endogenous sorting, we show how spatial differences in flood protection lead to clustering of vulnerable households in a risky region, in a real-world setting of common United States (US) flood zones. We find clustering effects of some size for flood zones with return periods of less than 30 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the possible impact of climate change on Malaysian rice production. Using the Ricardian Method and farm household data, we have examined the effects on rice producers focusing on sharecropper adaptations and ecological causes. The principle goal of this research paper is to investigate the impact of climate variables such as temperature, rainfall and precipitation on rice production during main and off seasons, in Kedah, Malaysia. The main purpose of this paper is to examine how climate change affects the net income of paddy farmers in the study area. The statistically significant results show that temperature, rainfall, farm size, educational knowledge, land area and value of labour input have an impact on rice production per hectare revealing potential impacts of climate vulnerability on Malaysian agriculture. The results showed that net revenue increased by Ringgit Malaysia (RM 1= $0.3277) 4.78 per hectare throughout the main seasons as a result of minimal increase in the temperature while there is a decrease of RM 3.02 in the net revenue per hectare during off seasons. During the off season, rainfall increased revenue per hectare by RM 1.32 and during the main season it reduced revenue per hectare by RM 1.01. The evidence from this study may be useful for Malaysian policymakers to facilitate greater preventive measures during the main and off-seasons to counteract climate uncertainty and vulnerability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses synergies between the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and considers how the CDM can facilitate the MDGs in Pacific Island Countries (PICs). To date, only 6 CDM projects have been registered in PICs, highlighting the 'lose-lose' business case that applies to this type of project development. This paper identifies constraints on and opportunities for CDM project development in PICs, and proposes a range of specific policy reform measures that could alter existing negative investment profiles. Key findings are that small-scale agricultural projects providing renewable energy from existing sources of biomass (currently seen as waste) are ideal candidates for CDM investment in PICs, and that the single most important reform to facilitate CDM activity and contribute to achieving the MDGs would be the implementation of a regional approach to CDM administration, in which a regional body became the designated CDM Authority for all states in the region. This would offset investment risk, improve governance transparency, and facilitate a targeted approach to sustainable development activities in the Pacific region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper refines the spatial resolution and spillover effects of a micro-econometric analysis of adaptation of agricultural portfolios to climate change using the Global Positioning System (GPS). From the household surveys collected across South America by the World Bank, the GPS recordings of exact farm locations such as latitude, longitude, and altitude are matched with high resolution grid cell climate data from the Climate Research Unit as well as geographically referenced soils and geography data from the Food and Agriculture Organization. The choice of agricultural systems at the farm level is estimated using spatial Logit model and the conditional land value is estimated for each system of agriculture after correcting for selection bias and spatial spillovers. Future choices and land values are simulated using the fine resolution climate scenarios by the UKMO (United Kingdom Meteorological Office) and GISS (Goddard Institute for Space Studies). This paper finds that, under the UKMO HadGEM1 (Hadley Center Global Environmental Model 1) scenario by around 2060, the choices of the specialized systems are expected to fall, but the mixed system would increase. The land value of the crops-only falls by 29 %, but the mixed system land value falls only by 12 %. Under a milder GISS ER (ModelE-R) scenario, the land value of the mixed system increases by 6 %. With full adaptations of agricultural systems, the expected land value falls by 17 %. Without adaptations, the damage increases. This paper demonstrates that adaptation behaviors can be best studied by a fine resolution micro-econometric analysis of agricultural portfolios using the GPS reference. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although climate change impacts on the agricultural sector were investigated intensively, however, vulnerability assessments and adaptation planning at the community level are still limited. This study aimed at providing a comprehensive climate change vulnerability assessment of four agriculture responses of barley production, wheat production, olive trees production, and goats' mortality at the Yarmouk River Basin in northern Jordan using a qualitative-quantitative scoring method based on actual estimations of exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity with an emphasis on community engagement. Thirty-year temporal variability (1982–2012) analysis using Kendall test and Pearson correlation test for three climatic variables (maximum and minimum air temperature, and annual rainfall) indicates high significant exposure level of increasing air temperature trends by rates of 0.07 °C/year and 0.06 °C/year for maximum and minimum temperature, respectively, and insignificant annual rainfall reductions ranging spatially from 2.1 mm/year at Irbid governorate to 2.9 mm/year at Mafraq Governorate. Agriculture responses sensitivity assessment indicates goats' mortality followed by olive production are moderately correlated with climate variables (r ranges from 0.32 to 0.57). The adaptive capacity assessment highlights the presence of low to moderate financial, institutional, political enforcement, technology implementation, and awareness of the farmers to climate change impacts and potential adaptation measures that subjected the study area to be ranked as moderately to highly vulnerable to climate change impacts. Multi-criteria decision analysis suggests that irrigation water-related adaptation measures are listed within top priorities. This paper addresses the qualitative-quantitative vulnerability assessment approach at the local rural level and through participatory engagements to be effective for improving the vulnerable adaptive capacities and suggesting further recommendations to be mainstreamed urgently with governmental strategies and action plans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adaptation is an urgent and critical way to cope with the impact of climate change. The Paris Agreement has noted that adaptation is a key component of the global response to climate change. Nations with lower incomes and greater vulnerability to climate change have and will continue to suffer from the potential or actual impacts of climate change due to their limited and fragmented adaptation. Here, we consider Central Asia as a case study due to its increasing temperature, increasing rainfall variability, worsening drought, rapid institutional changes after independence, and uneven economic investment in adaptation. This paper identifies five urgent fields (including the theoretical basis, technology and measure, law and regulation, funding, and the political system) and analyzes the gap between ideal and real adaptation, finds the direction for future adaptation, and provides adaptation strategies for similar nations by using CiteSpace, which is based on the Web of Science Core Collection from 1990 to 2019. The detailed strategies present four mainstream development directions: (1) improve the theoretical basis of adaptation and increase investment in research; (2) encourage research and development into targeted approaches of adaptation and acquire technology transfer from developed countries; (3) integrate adaptation into medium- and long-term plans for national sustainable development, widely involving non-government agencies in the process; and (4) obtain financial support from international organizations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small island developing states (SIDS) are among the countries in the world that are most vulnerable to climate change and required to adapt to its impacts. Yet, there is little information in the academic literature about how SIDS are adapting to climate change, across multiple countries and geographic regions. This paper helps to fill this gap. Using a sample of 16 countries across the Atlantic, Indian Ocean and South China Sea, Caribbean and Pacific regions, this study has two main aims, to identify (1) national-level adaptation trends across climate, climate-induced and non-climate-induced vulnerabilities, sectors and actors, as reported in National Communications (NCs) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), and (2) typologies of national-level adaptation actions in SIDS. It identifies, codes and assesses 977 adaptation actions. These actions were reported as addressing 47 climate and climate-induced vulnerabilities and 50 non-climate-induced vulnerabilities and were undertaken in 37 sectors by 34 actors. The paper proposes five typologies of adaptation actions for SIDS, based on actions reported by SIDS. It specifically explores the implications of its findings for global adaptation strategies. As this work establishes a baseline of adaptation action in SIDS, it can assist national governments to gauge their adaptation progress, identify gaps in their adaptation effort and, thereafter, develop appropriate strategies for filling the gaps. It can also assist donors, whether bilateral or multilateral, to make more 'climate-smart' investment decisions by being able to identify the adaptation needs that are not being met in SIDS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper reports on a comparative study of three different cases on vision and strategy development for climate change adaptation planning in (i) The South African Breede-Overberg Catchment, (ii) The Mississippi Estuary-New Orleans region and (iii) The Dutch Rhine-Meuse Estuary. The objective of the paper is twofold: to develop a better understanding of such processes and to further develop the Backcasting-Adaptive Management (BCAM) methodology. A framework for case evaluation is developed using six dimensions: (i) inputs and resources, (ii) future vision, (iii) stakeholder engagement, (iv) methodological aspects, (v) pathway development and (vi) impact. Major conclusions based on a cross-case comparison and testing propositions are (i) participatory vision development is a strong tool for climate change adaptation planning in different governance contexts and shows considerable diversity in its application in these contexts; (ii) a single, shared future vision is not a prerequisite for vision and pathway development and endorsement; (iii) broad stakeholder engagement enriches strategy development, but the involvement of marginal groups requires additional efforts and capacity building; (iv) multiple pathways and robust elements are useful but require novel expertise; and (v) more institutional embeddedness and support for participatory processes lead to better implementation of the outcomes of these processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Distributed photovoltaic (PV) generation is a promising pathway for reducing carbon emission and meeting energy demands in electricity sector. Subsidies are essential to accelerate its deployment. This paper aims to study the optimal subsidy levels for distributed PV generation from the perspective of maximizing the net policy benefits (environmental and economic) by applying the principal-agent theory, which is a commonly used method of analyzing government incentive issues. Based on a detailed analysis of asymmetric information and of benefit conflicts between the government (the principal) and the investor (the agent), the optimal subsidy principal-agent model is established, in which the investor's preference toward distributed PV generation is asymmetric and is described by a random variable. The equivalent model is then presented to obtain the optimal solutions, and a numerical example is provided to test the effectiveness of the model and to illustrate the implications of the solutions. The results show that high net policy benefits are directly influenced by a high investor preference. This emphasizes the importance for the government of improving the investor's preference level and of eliminating asymmetric information to develop distributed PV generation and reduce subsidy costs. Additionally, lowering the market risk and enlarging the overflow value of distributed PV generation both contribute to subsidy cost savings. This paper offers policy makers an effective subsidy scheme to accelerate distributed PV generation development and will also be a useful reference for government to subsidize other renewable power systems to mitigate global climate and energy changes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the climate change scenarios that have been developed for the Netherlands predicts hotter and drier summers and a substantial drop in river discharge. This might lead to water scarcity with detrimental economic and environmental effects. Among the possible adaptation responses to climate change-induced water scarcity, the re-allocation of water resources among competing uses should also be considered. In this paper, we extend and apply a computable general equilibrium (CGE) model to assess the potential of water markets (water allocation according to its shadow price) to guide the allocation of scarce water across agriculture, manufacturing, and public water supply. We develop four scenarios in which the scope of water markets is increased from industry-specific to economy-wide. The results show that the agricultural sector bears nearly all of the losses from a new water-scarce climate, while the manufacturing sectors are able to mitigate their losses to a large extent by technical measures. Extending the scope of water markets unambiguously increases economic output and results in a re-allocation of water to the manufacturing sector from the agricultural sector and from public water services. If, perhaps for political reasons, public water services are excluded from water trading, water is re-allocated from agriculture to manufacturing. Depending on which sectors are included, the construction of a water market can have negative or positive effects on a sector's output, and although the implementation of water markets may be positive for overall economic output and can hence assist adaptation, the effect on vulnerable or societally sensitive economic sectors, such as public water, should be taken into account when implementing such a market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change requires reconsideration of flood risk management strategies. Cost-benefit analysis (CBA), an economic decision-support tool, has been widely applied to assess these strategies. This paper aims to describe and discuss probabilistic extensions of CBA to identify welfare-maximising flood risk management strategies under climate change. First, uncertainty about the changes in return periods of hydro-meteorological extremes is introduced by probability-weighted climate scenarios. Second, the analysis is extended by learning about climate change impacts. Learning occurs upon the probabilistic arrival of information. We distinguish between learning from scientific progress, from statistical evidence and from flood disasters. These probabilistic extensions can be used to analyse and compare the economic efficiency and flexibility of flood risk management strategies under climate change. We offer a critical discussion of the scope of such extensions and options for increasing flexibility. We find that uncertainty reduction from scientific progress may reduce initial investments, while other types of learning may increase initial investments. This requires analysing effects of different types of learning. We also find that probabilistic information about climate change impacts and learning is imprecise. We conclude that risk-based CBA with learning improves the flexibility of flood risk management strategies under climate change. However, CBA provides subjective estimates of expected outcomes and reflects different decision-maker preferences than those captured in robustness analyses. We therefore advocate robustness analysis in addition to, or combined with, cost-benefit analysis to support local investment decisions on flood risk reduction and global strategies on allocation of adaptation funds for flood risk management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bangladesh has a large aerial extent of freshwater wetlands for her deltaic characteristics. In 1970, the total area of wetlands in Bangladesh is estimated to be 70000-80000 km, approximately, i.e., 50 % of total national land area. In the recent years, most of these wetlands are being lost and degraded primarily because of flood control projects, irrigation and agricultural activities and others human interference. Unfortunately, over the last three decades in the name of wetland development, local habitats were not taken care of. In this paper, the stakeholder and scenario analyses are employed for measuring public views towards wetlands degradation in Bangladesh. Involvement of stakeholders helps reconcile their different conflicting interests in wetlands, hence creating a common understanding about the problem under study. An exploratory scenario analysis illustrates different themes fulfilled by the wetlands and their associated services in case study Chalan Beel. The Chalan Beel once covered an area of approximately 651,230 acres in 1967. Currently, the permanent flooded area of the Chalan Beel has been reduced to about 18,120 acres. The scenarios show that most of the wetlands in Bangladesh are converted into agricultural lands, settlements, roads, and highways. Aquatic plants and animals are lost and endangered due to human interference and natural disturbance. The government, policymakers and some private organizations are trying to design suitable policy for wetland management but they are not able to reach this goal. It is observed that the local and national policies are facing complexities to create an effective regime to set aside the wetlands management policy in Bangladesh. In this context, this paper proposed an Increased Public Awareness (IPA) policy model that could be pathways for both short and long-term solutions of wetlands degradation in developing nations like Bangladesh. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper identifies the literature that deals with adaptation to climate change in the transport sector. It presents a systematic review of the adaptations suggested in the literature. Although it is frequently claimed that this socially and economically important sector is particularly vulnerable to climate change, there is comparatively little research into its adaptation. The 63 sources we found are analysed following an action framework of adaptation. This distinguishes different adaptational functions and means of adaptation. By an open coding procedure, a total of 245 adaptations are found and classified. The paper shows a broad diversity of interdependent actors to be relevant-ranging from transportation providers to public and private actors and households. Crucial actors are hybrid in terms of being public or private. A substantial share of the identified adaptations follows a top-down adaptation policy pattern where a public or hybrid operator initiates action that affects private actors. Most of the exceptions from this pattern are technical or engineering measures. Identified adaptations mostly require institutional means, followed by technical means, and knowledge. Generally, knowledge on adapting transport to climate change is still in a stage of infancy. The existing literature either focuses on overly general adaptations, or on detailed technical measures. Further research is needed on the actual implementation of adaptation, and on more precise institutional instruments that fill the gap between too vague and too site-specific adaptations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aimed at to explore the consequences of cyclone victims due to unavailability of infrastructural supports and to prop up the recognition that the infrastructure has a vital role to play in societies' resilience during catastrophic situation. The paper begins with a review of the science regarding climate change impact and cyclone disaster in Bangladesh. It emphasizes the consequences of cyclone Aila in a selected coastal community in the remote coastal area. A field survey was conducted by authors during March-August 2009. Eight available infrastructures were selected for this analysis. Uniformity of distribution (R), demand index (Di) and degree of demand (DD) of the selected infrastructures were calculated by using nearest neighbourhood methods of analysis. Results show that based on its specific planning standards none of the selected infrastructure can support 50% of the total population. Accordingly, it was observed that 76% respondent could not reach in safer place due to rush of water intrusion and also because of the inundation of road-network. The nearness to the available cyclone shelter, and place of taking shelter during cyclone is positively correlated ( r = 0.38; p < 0.001). However, the poor people had less opportunity to take shelter in cyclone shelters, although none of the respondents groups whose monthly income is above 75 USD stands without any infrastructural support. Such important observation may hint the influence of local elites on the local disaster mitigation planning practice in Bangladesh. Almost 90% of the respondents claimed that they had no access to enter the available cyclone shelter. Furthermore, the damaged infrastructures added more hindrances during post disaster activities and also increased the sufferings of the victims. If there were adequate cyclone shelters or rehabilitation centre, the affected people could take shelter and continue other works temporarily. Results drawn from this research will be useful for local and national level planners, as well as international donors for future disaster mitigation planning in the studied area and the methodology can be applied in similar countries and geographical territories. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Whilst mitigation has dominated policy and research agendas in recent years there is an increasing recognition that communities also need to be preparing for change that is unavoidable, partially a consequence of anthropogenic greenhouse gases already emitted to the atmosphere. The perceived need for adaptation has also received additional impetus through the high public profile now given to the impacts of current day weather variability, particularly the significant economic and social costs associated with recent extreme events. However, being a relatively new focus for both research and policy communities; practical evidence of the extent, feasibility, efficiency, and cost effectiveness of potential adaptation options remains largely lacking. In response, this paper seeks to make a contribution to this embryonic but evolving knowledge base by considering the theoretical underpinnings of adaptation and ultimately how this translates into practice 'in the real world'. The analytical commentary, based on a bottom-up approach involving iterative engagement with key stakeholders and experts, reflects on the identification of measures that are either innovative or examples of good practice in reducing or transferring climate risks, as well as considering those 'enabling' institutional structures and processes that act to support implementation on the ground. The paper concludes by synthesising the key findings to date in order to highlight some of the opportunities for, and barriers to, adaptation activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Africa faces several development challenges including those linked to climate change. Energy usage in South Africa, for example, is already constrained because of a range of development challenges (the dependence on cheap coal as a heating source; energy availability; access; affordability of alternative energy sources; and a range of health impacts, including air pollution). Notwithstanding calls for a transition to a low carbon economy, there have been few, recent assessments in South Africa of the costs associated with such a transition, particularly the social and economic costs for the poor who use energy in a variety of ways. In this paper we focus on trying to unravel some of the complex energy-use behaviour including understanding what drives consumers in resourcepoor areas to choose and use persistently risky energy options. Analysis of qualitative data in two township areas, Doornkop and Kwaguqa, shows that township households, whether electrified or not, continue to burn coal. In both study areas, an estimated 80% of electrified households burn coal for space heating and cooking and also make use of multiple fuel sources for a range of activities. Although the major obstacles preventing people from discontinuing domestic coal combustion are poverty, the ready availability and social acceptability of coal together with other social customs cannot be underrated. This paper therefore highlights some of the persistent challenges associated with sustainable energy transitions in South Africa including implications for improved mitigation and adaptation for the energy sector in wider climate change efforts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As climate change adaptation planning moves beyond short term National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA) to longer-term approaches, it is instructive to review the NAPA process and examine how well it was linked to national development planning. This paper reviews 41 NAPAs submitted by Least Developed Countries (LDCs) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), to assess the NAPA process in terms of NAPAs integration with countries' national development strategies. The review outlines the actors involved in developing NAPAs and identifies the range of interventions included in countries' priority adaptation actions. The paper uses the example of population as an issue related to both climate change and national development to assess how it is addressed as part of LDCs' adaptation and national development agendas. The analysis shows that although countries recognize population pressure as an issue related to the ability to cope with climate change and as a factor hindering progress inmeeting development goals, it is not well incorporated into either adaptation planning or in national development strategies. Among the 41 NAPAs, 37 link high and rapid population growth to climate change. Moreover, six NAPAs clearly state that slowing population growth or investments in reproductive health/ family planning (RH/FP) should be considered among the country's priority adaptation actions. Furthermore, two NAPAs actually propose a project with components of RH/FP among their priority adaptation interventions, although none of them has yet been funded. The paper points to structural issues that hamper better alignment between climate change adaptation and national development planning and offers recommendations for longer-term adaptation strategies that better meet the development needs of countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change presents a major threat to the prospects for sustained economic development in Africa. In spite of this, climate change concerns do not feature prominently in the implementation of national and regional development programmes. The present paper identifies the likely trade-offs and synergies that may emerge from an integrated 'development-climate' approach to policy making. Also, the paper presents the case for the formulation and evaluation of an integrated policy approach based on four principle criteria, including; long-term environmental effectiveness, equity considerations, costeffectiveness and the institutional compatibility of the policy combinations. What is more? The paper suggests specific options for mainstreaming climate change adaptation and mitigation in various sectoral development agenda such as; agricultural intensification, poverty eradication, rural development, urban renewal, energy security of supply and trade. Given the wide divergence of socio-economic systems and the peculiar challenges faced by individual countries in the continent, further research is required on robust country-specific strategies for pursuing an integrated development-climate policy framework. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Facing the increasingly adverse impacts of climate change, many coastal cities in developing and least-developed countries have shaped their climate adaptation plan. This study aims to unpack the state-of-the-art municipal adaptation planning in developing countries. The paper seeks to understand the types of vulnerability and explore planned adaptation options through a content analysis of adaptation planning documents in 45 selected coastal cities in developing countries. The result shows the complexity of vulnerabilities that are not only climate change impacts, but more importantly, the socio-economic sensitivity, the insufficient infrastructure system, and limited adaptive capacity. Adaptation responses, correspondingly, address primarily current vulnerabilities rather than future climate change impacts. Local climate change adaptation in developing countries, therefore, cannot separate from socio-economic development and capacity enhancement. A coordination mechanism for inter-policy is necessary to manage the trade-offs between multiple priorities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The reduction of urban heat island (UHI) and carbon emission is of great importance for thermal environment of urban residential areas. This paper aimed to establish a method to analyze the effect of different underlying surface layouts on the reduction of heat island intensity and carbon emission. Taking Tianjin, China, as a case study area, a computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model, satellite-based remote sensing retrieval technology, and orthogonal experimental design were performed to investigate and quantify the performance of mitigation strategies (i.e., urban green space or water body, cool/high reflectivity pavement, and reflective roofs and facades) on UHI. The results indicated that urban green space is the most natural and effective mitigation strategy, while the widespread application of cool/high reflectivity materials is suggested as a mitigation strategy for building height more than 10 m above the ground. Application of urban water body is the next preferred strategy for air at 1.5 m pedestrian level. Green roofs, rainwater gardens, and permeable brick pavements are also more feasible in high-density cities for mitigating the UHI effect. The above mitigation and adaptation strategies of community scale can be acted on UHI and as a global urban climate change response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this paper is to examine the mitigation of climate change using the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) from the perspective of developing countries. The effects of the CDM on developing countries' efforts to reduce greenhouse gases (GHGs) pledged under the Paris Agreement (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change [UNFCCC], 21st Conference of the Parties, Paris, France) are investigated. Data analysis reveals that the intensive hosting of CDM projects and the resultant higher marginal abatement costs led to fewer efforts by developing countries to mitigate climate change. A theoretical model from the literature of "low-hanging fruits" is applied to determine if rising prices of the CDM can be expected in the future. The results indicate that the benefits for developing countries must increase so as to keep the CDM attractive for them in an environment where they also have reduction commitments. To further ensure the effectiveness of the CDM under the Paris Agreement, policy should ensure that developing countries actually charge higher prices and, at the same time, contribute adequately to the global goal of GHG reductions. To this end, developing countries should be permitted to demand benefits that lie outside the current scope of the CDM, and non-compliance with their climate targets should also be sanctioned. In addition, fostering sustainable development should become more attractive for developed countries without the CDM, e.g., through sustainability labels, so as to reduce the trade-off for developing countries between the benefits of the CDM and compliance with their commitments to mitigate climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Direct air capture (DAC) is a developing technology for removing carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere or from low-CO2-containing sources. In principle, it could be used to remove sufficient CO2 from the atmosphere to compensate for hard-to-decarbonize sectors, such as aviation, or even for polishing gas streams containing relatively low CO2 concentrations. In this paper, the performance of lime-based sorbents for CO2 capture from air in a fixed bed was investigated. The effects of sorbent type, particle diameter, air flow rate, and relative humidity on the breakthrough time, breakthrough shape, and global reaction rate over a series of capture and regeneration cycles were examined. The greatest reaction rates and conversions were obtained when the sorbents were pre-hydrated and inlet air was humidified to 55% relative humidity. Humidifying the air alone leads to axial carbonation gradients since there is competition between CO2 and water with the available CaO. Negligible conversion, over the duration of the experiment, is obtained in a dry system without pre-hydration and humid air. A shrinking-core gas–solid reaction model was fitted to the breakthrough curves in order to estimate the surface reaction and effective diffusion constants. Although the surface reaction constants of the two sorbents were similar, the pelletized limestone had a greater effective diffusivity due to its greater porosity. At mild calcination conditions with air at 850 °C, the pelletized particles maintained their activity over nine carbonation–calcination cycles with a conversion drop of only 9% points. However, calcination under oxy-fuel conditions (CO2 at 920 °C) reduced the pellet carbonation conversion from 81 to 59% and pore surface area from 12.01 to 3.20 m2/g after only 4 cycles. This research clearly shows that DAC using lime-based sorbents is technically feasible, and that regeneration schemes compatible with technologies like calcium looping (CaL) are applicable for the air capture option. Finally, this study demonstrates that DAC using lime-based materials can be in the future a strategy to address emissions from transportation and distributed CO2 sources and to mitigate climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scientific evidence accumulating over the past decade documents that climate change impacts are already being experienced in the US Northeast. Policy-makers and resource managers must now prepare for the impacts from climate change and support implementing such plans on the ground. In this paper we argue that climate change challenges the region to maintain its economic viability, but also holds some opportunities that may enhance economic development, human well-being, and social justice. To face these challenges and seize these opportunities effectively we must better understand adaptation capacities, opportunities and constraints, the social processes of adaptation, approaches for engaging critical players and the broader public in informed debate, decision-making, and conscious interventions in the adaptation process. This paper offers a preliminary qualitative assessment, in which we emphasize the need for (1) assessing the feasibility and side effects of technological adaptation options, (2) increasing available resources and improving equitable access to them, (3) increasing institutional flexibility, fit, cooperation and decision-making authority, (4) using and enhancing human and social capital, (5) improving access to insurance and other risk-spreading mechanisms, and (6) linking scientific information more effectively to decision-makers while engaging the public. Throughout, we explore these issues through illustrative sectoral examples. We conclude with a number of principles that may guide the preparation of future adaptation plans for the Northeast. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]