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Levamisole (LEVA) and garlic are prevalent immunomodulators in humans and animals. Therefore, the present study aimed to examine the immunomodulatory effects of LEVA and garlic oil (GO) alone or in combination on the immune response of Wistar rats. A total of 24 male Wistar rats were allocated into four equal groups: Control group, which was given ad libitum access to food and water; and groups 2-4, which were orally administered LEVA [2.5 mg/kg body weight (BW) every 2 days], GO, (5 ml/kg BW daily), or LEVA plus GO, respectively for 4 consecutive weeks. Serum immunoglobulin (Ig)G and IgM levels were measured using a radial immunodiffusion assay. Serum cytokine levels, including interferon (IFN)-γ, interleukin (IL)-5 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay kits. Total blood counts were measured automatically using a cell counter. Serum lysozyme enzymatic activity was determined by measuring the diameters of the zones of clearance relative to lysozyme. Immunohistochemical detection of CD4 and CD8 was carried out using the streptavidin-biotinperoxidase method. Furthermore, the mRNA expression levels of IL-4, IL-5 and IL-12 were measured in the leukocytes and thymus gland by semi-quantitative polymerase chain reaction. The results revealed that LEVA increased serum levels of IFN-γ, IL-5 and TNF-α cytokines, whereas co-administration of LEVA and GO decreased the stimulatory action of LEVA alone. LEVA and GO alone increased the serum levels of IgG, IgM and total blood cell counts, and co-administration of GO and LEVA inhibited the effects of LEVA. At the cellular level, in the spleen, LEVA increased immunoreactivity of CD4 and CD8, whereas co-administration of GO with LEVA decreased this strong expression. At the molecular level, in leukocytes, LEVA upregulated the mRNA expression levels of IL-2, IL-4 and IL-5, whereas GO alone downregulated mRNA expression. Co-administration of GO with LEVA inhibited the LEVA-induced upregulation of IL-2, IL-4 and IL-5 mRNA expression. In the thymus, both LEVA and GO upregulated the mRNA expression levels of IL-4 and IL-5, whereas LEVA alone did not affect IL-12 mRNA expression. Co-administration of GO with LEVA inhibited LEVA-induced upregulation of IL-4 and GO-induced upregulation of IL-12 expression, and had an additive upregulatory effect on IL-5 expression. In conclusion, LEVA stimulated T-helper (Th)1 cytokines, whereas GO stimulated a Th2 response, and co-administration of GO with LEVA inhibited the stimulatory effects of LEVA and balanced the Th1/Th2 response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of the present study was to investigate the protective effects of camel milk on hepatic pathogenicity induced by experimental infection with Escherichia (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) in Wistar rats. The rats were divided into six groups: The control and camel milk groups received water and camel milk, respectively; two groups received camel milk for 2 weeks prior to intraperitoneal injection of either E. coli or S. aureus; and two groups were injected intraperitoneally with E. coli and S. aureus, respectively. All animals were maintained under observation for 7 days prior to biochemical and gene expression analyses. The rats treated with camel milk alone exhibited no changes in expression levels of glutamic‑pyruvate transaminase (GPT) or glutamic‑oxaloacetic transaminase (GOT), compared with the water‑treated group. The E. coli‑ and S. aureus‑injected rats exhibited a significant increase in oxidative stress, and prior treatment with camel milk normalized the observed changes in the expression levels of GPT, GOT and malondialdehyde (MDA). Treatment with camel milk decreased the total bacterial count in liver tissue samples obtained from the rats injected with E. coli and S. aureus. Camel milk administration increased the expression levels of glutathione‑S‑transferase and superoxide dismutase, which were downregulated following E. coli and S. aureus injection. In addition, camel milk downregulated the increased expression of interleukin‑6 and apoptosis‑associated genes. Of note, administration of camel milk alone increased the expression levels of the B cell lymphoma 2‑associated X protein and survivin anti‑apoptotic genes, and supplementation prior to the injection of E. coli and S. aureus induced further upregulation, In conclusion, camel milk exerted protective effects against E. coli and S. aureus pathogenicity, by modulating the extent of lipid peroxidation, together with the antioxidant defense system, immune cytokines, apoptosis and the expression of anti-apoptotic genes in the liver of Wistar rats.