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The north-western part of Bangladesh especially the Barind region is considered as a drought-prone area. The objective of this paper is to find out the adaptation measures practised by farmers to cope with climate change and agricultural drought in two drought-prone villages of the north-western Bangladesh. The primary data for this study were collected from a structured questionnaire survey conducted on 130 households selected from 192 through simple random sampling. The present study finds that agriculture of this area is recurrently disrupted by frequent drought events. Moreover, the climate change will increase both frequency and magnitude of extreme drought events in this region. This paper identifies that the impacts of drought on agriculture are difficulties in irrigation, disruption in cropping pattern, depletion of ground water table, problem in fish cultivation and so on. On the other hand, analyses unveil that respondents practised a range of adjustment strategies to combat adverse impacts of drought such as adoptions of drought-tolerant crop varieties, rainwater harvesting, mango and jujube intercropping with rice, kitchen gardening, weed control and reducing water loss, constructing water control structures, irrigation and cultivation of fast-growing fish species. Therefore, the present study recommends proper drought early warning system, reserving surface water, managing supplemental irrigation, tree plantation, re-excavation of canals and traditional ponds, credit support to the farmers, preparedness and awareness rising to ensure the future sustainable agricultural development in the study areas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Eastern African region is witnessing changes in climate conditions and rising sea levels due to the influences of global warming interacting with weather phenomena such as El Nino and La Nina. These trends, as well as more intense extreme weather events, highlight the urgent need for appropriate adaptation responses at both the national and local level. This is especially the case for the numerous small islands of the region that are particularly vulnerable to climate change. This paper reports on a study that examined coping and adaptation responses to climate and non-climate stressors among coastal communities on two Zanzibar islands (Pemba and Unguja) in Tanzania. The study focused on three of the primary livelihood activities on the islands, namely, seaweed growing, fishing, and crop and livestock farming. Using mainly survey data, we explored the responses of farmers, fishermen, and seaweed growers to multiple shocks and stressors. We further investigated responses that were discontinued for various reasons, as well as any barriers to adaptation encountered by these communities. We found that coastal communities in both Kiuyu Mbuyuni, Pemba and Matemwe, Unguja face a range of interrelated shocks and stressors linked to their livelihood activities, some of which they were able to respond to primarily through coping strategies. However, their attempts to adapt in the longer term as well as to venture outside their traditional activities were constrained by several barriers. Some of these barriers operate beyond the individual and community capability to overcome, while others—like social and cultural barriers—can be addressed at the local level but need a concerted effort and political will. We draw the findings together into a conceptual framework to help unpack the implications these hold for coastal communities on the two islands. We then suggest ways to build resilience in local livelihoods and overcome barriers to climate change adaptation in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The low-lying Vietnamese Mekong Delta (VMD) is a key agricultural production landscape increasingly threatened by anthropogenic stresses and climate change. Among the different threats, droughts caused by extreme events, climate change and upstream developments, affect the delta the most. This paper explores the relationship between the intensity, duration, and frequency of meteorological droughts and hydrological droughts using a range of indices. We used monthly rainfall and stream flow data for the period 1992–2021 to calculate the Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI), the Reconnaissance Drought Index (RDI), and the streamflow drought Index (SDI) for different time intervals. We found no observed time lag, and a strong correlation coefficient between upstream hydrological and downstream meteorological drought events assessed over long-term scales (i.e., 12-months). This is true for all downstream sites, except Ben Tre City. Hydrological drought events onset lagged 5–6-, 6-, and 3–4-month behind meteorological droughts at mid- and shorter assessment time scales (9-, 6-, 3-month). The average correlation coefficients between hydrological indices and meteorological indices at 9–3-month time scales ranged from moderate to weak. These findings shed light and advance the understanding of the progression of meteorological to hydrological droughts in the VMD. Our results aid the regional understanding of drought onset and the causative mechanisms at work, which is important for both medium- and long-term drought forecasting and adaptation planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper contributes to the growing literature highlighting the significance of assessing risk and vulnerability, micro-level perceptions and adaptation decision-making in building resilience of farm communities to climate change in dryland region of India. To select a region for grassroots enquiry, spatial differential in risk to climate change was assessed in Rajasthan, using IPCC AR5 framework. Among the highly vulnerable and risky districts, Bikaner district was selected for elicitation of micro-level imperatives. Rising atmospheric temperature, inter-seasonal displacements of rainfall and recurrence of extreme events were perceived by the farmers resulting in resource degradation, production risks and erosion of households' socio-economic dynamics. As risk preventive measures, suitable adjustment in agricultural practices, natural resource management, shift to off-farm activities and other relief measures were adopted by the farmers. Farmer's choice of adaptation was influenced by several climatic, socio-economic and infrastructural & institutional factors in varying degree. Moreover, several financial, economic, infrastructural and informational bottlenecks to adaptations were reported during household survey and FGDs. The results suggest that capturing grassroots evidence is crucial for directing locally tailored adaptation strategies, along with the improving deficiencies in the developmental pathways for climate-resilient agriculture. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

After reviewing relevant climate impact assessment guidelines derived from those of the United States Country Study Program (USCSP), the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) and UNEP, the author adopted a set of impact assessment steps towards a methodological procedure for assessing vulnerability and adaptation (V and A) in a Bangladesh coastal cyclone-prone area. This paper classifies and prioritizes the intensity of V and A issues through weighting index values of two recent cyclones: 'Sidr' in 2007 and 'Aila' in 2009. This study offers a model using V and A techniques ideal for immediate policy-making in order to reduce future vulnerability at local level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change poses major challenges to agricultural systems in drought prone regions of the world especially in the areas with high poverty, lack of irrigation facilities and low productivity. Towards this it is essential to understand the climate change perceptions, adaptation practices and barriers to effective adaptation at household and community level. This paper using household surveys and focus group discussions in one of the drought prone areas of Odisha in India, explores various aspects of perception on climate change and barriers to adaptation. It also analyses the accuracy of perceptions based on rainfall data from nearest meteorological stations. The study reinforces the argument by earlier studies that the perception by people simply cannot be wrong because they may have a just a low correlation with underlying meteorological data. Results suggest that farmers increasingly perceive the changes in the rainfall and temperature patterns. However, when compared with the trend in actual rainfall data, perceptions on rainfall are found to more closely align with the results from the nearest station as compared to the station farther from it. Analysis revealed that seasonal rainfall variability has a profound influence on the farmers' perceptions on climate change and drought in the study region. Farmers' are still dependent on the traditional forecasting system because of the lack of access to modern climate forecasting and tailored information for agricultural practice. Although farmers in the study region are already adapting to the changing climate, the study finds that while lack of access to water and irrigation, information on climate change adaptation and early warning systems are major barriers to adaptation at the household level lack of government intervention, lack of knowledge on drought resistant crops and varieties and lack of renovation of water bodies and irrigation were mentioned as the major barriers at the community level. Findings from the paper argue for better adaptation planning at the local level incorporating local level perceptions and barriers to adaptation. In such areas local level planning can be crucial in enhancing the adaptive capacity of the farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper deals with coping and adaptation processes to natural hazards and (potential) climate change impacts. Selected response measures to natural hazards are critically reviewed with respect to the actual and potential consequences that these measures might imply for additional adaptation needs and changes within social-ecological systems. In this context, the author introduces the concept of first- and second-order adaptation processes in order to underline the cascade process that adaptation implies, the potentials for failure, and the limits of adaptation. Important aspects of first- and second-order adaptation processes as well as the issue of the limits of adaptation are illustrated based on observations and empirical work conducted in Vietnam. In its final part, the paper discusses the findings in light of selected theoretical approaches that might help to understand how stabilization and destabilization processes are influenced or even triggered by adaptation measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper utilizes a multi-level governance framework to explain how and at what scale climate adaptation, exemplified by flood risk management, was governed in the medium-scale city of Saint Louis, Senegal. It explores how this policy sector worked toward a 'resilient city' pointing to gaps between governance as prescribed and as practiced. The paper suggests that strong coordination of climate change adaptation and flood risk management should take place at city level, reflecting the 'place-based' character of these policy sectors. However, adaptation cannot be addressed successfully at any single geographic scale or by any one category of actor. Effective collaboration across politico-administrative boundaries at multiple scales is required in order to address tensions between competing policy agendas and tackle socio-spatial inequality and vulnerability. We found that public officials at the city and regional state level encouraged some degree of citizen participation in planning and input into adaptation. However, despite emerging networks for city-level coordination and capacity to adapt to flood risks among local residents, there were limitations in how higher-level government and institutions supported the lower levels in vertical and horizontal coordination. In particular, services and investments within poor and vulnerable settlements were lacking. This undermined the capability of municipal staff for local engagement and for diverse groups of residents to become really effective partners with the government in coproducing services required to enhance resilience. More so, it limited opportunities to bring local actions to scale-beyond the city boundaries and toward transitional adaptation and transformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The assessment of the current impacts of extreme weather conditions on transport systems reveals high costs in specific locations. Prominent examples for Europe are the economic consequences of the harsh winter periods 2009/2010 and 2010/2011 and the floods in Austria, Eastern Europe, Germany and the United Kingdom in 2005 and 2007. Departing from the EC-funded project WEATHER, this paper delves into the subject of adaptation strategies by revisiting the project's general findings on adaptation strategies and by adding two specific cases: (1) advanced winter maintenance on roads in southwest Germany and (2) technical and organizational measures in Alpine rail transport. For these two cases, feasible adaptation strategies are elaborated and their potential is discussed in light of damage cost forecasts up to 2050. For the road sector, we find a high potential to mitigate weather-related costs, although damages here are expected to decline. In contrast, rail systems face strongly increasing damages and the mitigation options offered by improved information and communication systems seem to be largely exploited. Consequently, it is easier to justify expensive adaptation measures for high-cost rail infrastructures than for road transport. A generic analysis of 14 damage cases worldwide, however, revealed that generally awareness raising, cooperation and communication strategies are sufficient to mitigate the most severe damages by natural disasters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adaptation to climate change in agricultural settings depends on understanding farmers' perceptions of the nature of climate change, their agency in adapting and the efficacy of adaptive measures themselves. Such knowledge can improve mitigation and adaptation strategies. This study addresses the limited understanding of how farmers appraise their private adaptive measures and influential factors. It uses data from structured interviews with 598 rice farmers in the Mekong Delta, Vietnam. Based on protection motivation theory, farmers' assessments of private adaptive measures were measured by perceived self-efficacy, perceived adaptation efficacy and perceived adaptation cost. Multiple regressions were used to understand significant factors affecting those assessments. Some demographic and socio-economic factors, belief in climate change, information and objective resources were found to influence farmers' adaptation assessments. It is shown that the sources and quality of information are particularly important. The improvement of both the accessibility and usefulness of local services (e.g. irrigation, agricultural extension, credit and health care) is deemed a necessity for successful adaptation strategies in the Mekong Delta. The paper also shows the application of PMT in measuring farmers' appraisals of private adaptive measures to climate change, thereby opening this area for further research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change adds another dimension of challenges to the growth and sustainability of Indian agriculture. The growing exposure to livelihood shocks from climate variability/change and limited resource base of the rural community to adapt has reinforced the need to mainstream climate adaptation planning into developmental landscape. However, a better understanding of micro-level perceptions is imperative for effective and informed planning at the macro-level. In this paper, the grass-root level perspectives on climate change impacts and adaptation decisions were elicited at farm level in the Moga district of Punjab and Mahbubnagar district of Telangana, India. The farmers opined that the climatic variability impacts more than the long-term climate change. They observed change in the quantum, onset and distribution of rainfall, rise in minimum as well as maximum temperature levels, decline in crop yield and ground water depletion. The key socio-economic effects of climate change included decline in farm income, farm unemployment, rural migration and increased indebtedness among farmers. In order to cope with climate variability and change thereon, farmers resorted to adaptation strategies such as use of crop varieties of suitable duration, water conservation techniques, crop insurance and participation in non-farm activities and employment guarantee schemes. Farmers’ adaptation to changing climate was constrained by several technological, socio-economic and institutional barriers. These include limited knowledge on the costs-benefits of adaptation, lack of access to and knowledge of adaptation technologies, lack of financial resources and limited information on weather. Besides, lack of access to input markets, inadequate farm labour and smaller farm size were the other constraints. Further, on the basis of the grass-root elicitation a ‘Need-Based Adaptation’ planning incorporating farmers’ perceptions on climate change impacts, constraints in the adoption of adaptation strategies and plausible adaptation options were linked with the most suitable ongoing programmatic interventions of the Government of India. The study concluded that micro-level needs and constraints for various adaptation strategies and interventions should be an integral part of the programme development, implementation and evaluation in the entire developmental paradigm. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Informal settlements are an important source of affordable housing and economic activity in developing cities. Research shows that informal settlements are at high risk from natural hazards and the effects of global climate change. Conditions within such settlements are diverse, however, and it is important that we understand the variation in risk across households. In this paper, we study the uneven terrain of risk to localized hazards in informal settlements in Kolkata, India. Our research question is, which factors predict household exposure to monsoon rain hazards? We surveyed 414 households living in low-lying informal settlements on the city's periphery. Using a variety of predictors, we estimate binary logistic models for two outcome variables tied to monsoon rain: home flooding and home leaking. We find that household exposure varies significantly across our study population and follows predictable patterns based on socio-economic and infrastructure variables. The home flooding model results show that households with higher incomes are less likely to flood, but in situ births increase exposure. Households living in structures made of more permanent materials are less likely to flood, as are households living near infrastructure. The home leaking model shows that households with relative financial stability are less likely to leak, as are those that have been living in the settlement for longer periods of time and whose houses are made of better quality materials. These findings indicate that extensive risk in informal settlements is unevenly experienced and that policies intended to reduce disaster and climate risk should focus on the lowest-income households, the provision of infrastructure, and security of tenure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sea level rise (SLR) and storm surge have significant impacts on tourism properties and activities in the low-lying coastal region. Coastal tourism in Zhejiang Province, China, is physically and socioeconomically susceptible to the flood risk posed by accelerated SLR and intensified storm surge. In this paper, within a scenario design of SLR and storm surge, a GIS-based dataset of major coastal tourist attractions in coastal Zhejiang is created to assess their potential flood risk by using a simple inundation model and a risk matrix. It is estimated that only two resorts would be directly flooded by a SLR of 1-2 m, but extensive inundation of coastal tourism communities may occur during low-frequency surges, especially after adding predicted 1-m SLR. The risk assessment further shows that a majority of the exposed sites is subject to moderate and low risk at current state but would be at higher (moderate and high)-risk categories in the future. In the long term, a combination of adaption measures is presented for policy-makers and other stakeholders for sustainable flood risk management in coastal tourism destinations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The American Society of Civil Engineers' 2013 Report Card for the Nation's Infrastructure indicated that over 10 % of the roughly 670,000 bridges in the USA are structurally deficient with a $120 billion investment over the next 15 years required for mitigation. In addition, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change indicates that the frequency of severe precipitation events is increasing as well as associated flooding. These factors coupled with scour as a leading cause of bridge degradation demonstrate a need to develop screening methods for assessing and prioritizing bridges most deserving of adaptation measures. This paper proposes a method for utilizing FEMA's HAZUS-MH software along with the United States Department of Transportation's Hydraulic Engineering Circular 18 scour equations to predict the relative scour impact for a bridge to assist in adaptation prioritization. The estimation method develops a scour factor for a bridge using contraction, pier and abutment scour estimates for a base-year and future-year flood event. The scour factor is then used in conjunction with estimated bridge replacement cost to predict monetary damages for a future flood event. The method was validated using repair cost data for eight bridges located in Davidson County (Nashville), Tennessee, from a severe flooding event in May 2010. An extended case study application was also conducted by applying the methodology to a set of flood-prone bridges in the Little Rock, Arkansas area. The results of this research suggest that the proposed methodology may offer municipalities a useful screening tool for prioritizing bridges for adaptation planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adaptive capacity represents a crucial component in the assessment of a region's vulnerability to climate change. The term adaptive capacity is only fuzzily defined, and determining it is difficult and often neglected in previous studies. In this paper, a newly developed adaptive capacity concept is introduced, with a respective indicator/criteria system and simple aggregation methods. The approach allows for adaptive capacity assessments at 3 levels of specificity (impact specific, sector specific and regional generic). The selection of indicators is tailor-made for Alpine regions, where the approach has been widely tested. The presented approach requires extended stakeholder involvement, namely for the evaluation of the indicators. The overall effort needed for its implementation remains reasonable. The outcome of the assessment exercise does not provide precise objective measurements, but remains an indicative estimation due to the fuzziness and complexity of the underlying concept. The conceptual approach is transferable to other mountain areas and beyond, the selection of indicators however is only valid for the Alpine region. The showcase presents results from the adaptive capacity assessment in the region of South Tyrol, where the method was carried out as part of a climate change vulnerability study. The outcomes indicate a number of issues that future actions could address in order to improve adaptive capacity in the region, namely in the field of prevention measures against meteorological extremes and natural hazards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An understanding of vulnerability is not only crucial for the survival of the exposed communities to extreme events, but also for their adaptation to climate change. Vulnerability affects community participation in hazard mitigation, influences emergency response and governs adaptive capacity for the changing environmental and hazards characteristics. However, despite increased awareness, assessments and understanding of the processes that produce vulnerability, disaster risks prevail. This raises questions on the effectiveness of vulnerability assessments and their applications for hazard mitigation and adaptation. The literature includes a range of vulnerability assessment methods, wherein frequently the selection of any particular method is governed by the research objectives. On the other hand, hazard mitigation plans and policies even though mention vulnerability, their implementation pays less attention to the variations in its nature and underlying causes. This paper explores possible reasons for such gaps by exploring a case study of the Hutt Valley, New Zealand. It brings out the limitations of different vulnerability assessment methods in representing the local vulnerability and challenges they bring in planning for the vulnerability reduction. It argues that vulnerability assessment based on any particular method, such as deprivation index, principle component analysis, composite vulnerability index with or without weight, may not reveal the actual vulnerability of a place, and therefore, a comprehensive vulnerability assessment is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effective adaptation of smallholders in regions severely affected by climate change is critical to their survival and development. This study provides insights into the climate change adaptation strategies of smallholders in the Yellow River-Huangshui River Valley (YHV), located on the eastern Tibetan Plateau (TP). The YHV is an important food-producing region on the TP. Climate change is threatening the livelihoods of local households. This study uses data from 494 household questionnaires, meteorological station data, and disaster statistics reports collected in the YHV region to understand the climate change adaptation strategies of smallholders and explore the factors that influence their strategies using the multivariate probit (MVP) model. The study found that frequent droughts, wind hail, and floods significantly impact agriculture in the YHV. Smallholders in the YHV adopted six main adaptation strategies to cope with the effects of climate change: crop rotation (88.25%), increasing agricultural inputs (75.30%), changing crop sowing times (61.94%), engaging in off-farm activities (50.20%), expanding cropland areas (32.59%), and raising more livestock (15.99%). The MVP model results indicated that smallholders' perceptions of disasters (drought, wind hail, and flood) have a significant impact on their adaptation strategies. An increase in perceived disasters positively and significantly affected off-farm strategies but negatively affected agricultural adaptation strategies. Although increasing the labor cost of agricultural production, the number of cropland plots to some extent encourages smallholders to adopt agricultural adaptation strategies and discourages the adoption of off-farm activities. Additionally, smallholder adaptation strategies were significantly influenced by various indicators including number of livestock, proportion of agricultural equipment, elevation, and off-farm income. The study proposes targeted policy recommendations to promote sustainable development of local households' livelihoods. These include strengthening household coping capacities for droughts, wind hail and floods, promoting skills training, encouraging agricultural scaling operations and off-farm livelihood transformation for certain small farmers, and considering the environmental impacts of household adaptational strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Asia and the Pacific, the agriculture sector is the most important, but it is also the most at risk from climate chnage. Droughts are one of the main sources of disaster risks that can change yield levels and cause sizeable productivity losses in agricultural products. In response, the farmers are taking a number of climate-related risk-reduction steps. As a result, this study has investigated farmers' preferences for climate change adaptation strategies as well as their socioeconomic determinants. A random sample of 200 farmers in Nowshehra, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, were surveyed. A multivariate probit model was used in the study to determine the relationship between independent variables and farmers decisions to implement a specific adaptation strategy. According to the findings of the study, the most common methods of coping with drought were rainwater harvesting, soil conservation, changing crop planting dates, ponds, and terraces with spillways. Furthermore, the study highlighted the role of socio-economic determinants in the adoption of these adaptation strategies. In light of these findings, the government may choose to help these farmers by providing them with ponds and water storage facilities. It is critical to educate farmers about climate change so that they can develop strategies to mitigate its negative effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) is highly vulnerable to climate change and its variability. The present study employs an indicator-based approach to assess the district-level (132 districts) vulnerability of the IHR, based on a modified risk assessment framework proposed by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC-AR5). Based on Moron's I and Local Geary, the study also carries out a geospatial analysis to identify the vulnerability hotspots. The Composite Vulnerability Indices (CVI) developed in this study, based on a set of 14 common indicators, suggest that Assam (in the eastern IHR), and Jammu and Kashmir (in the western IHR) are highly vulnerable states as the majority of their districts fall in the "highly vulnerable" cohort. The CVI ranges from 0.75 (for Goalpara in Assam) to 0.35 (for Kolasib in Mizoram). The hotspots are also found to be located in the hazard-prone regions of Jammu and Kashmir and the 'char' belt of the Brahmaputra River basin in Assam. These districts are economically poor with fragile agro-based livelihoods, and limited institutional and infrastructural provisions. The outcome of the study has significant potential to assist targeted policy interventions in the most vulnerable locations and rational allocation of adaptation resources through identification of vulnerability hotspots and the drivers of vulnerability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crop simulation models are essential tools to facilitate the evaluation and application of crop production practices under different climate scenarios. The present study analyzed the impact of climate change on wheat production in the semi-arid regions of western India by using the decision support system for the agrotechnology transfer (DSSAT-CERES) simulation model. We used ensemble and bias correction data of the coordinated regional downscaling experiment for South Asia (CORDEX-SA) driving global climate model (GCM) experiments for the future climate. The study considered the historical (1981–2010), experimental period (2014–2017), and future (2021–2050 and 2051–2080) climatic data to simulate grain yield. We used a randomized complete block design for different crop treatments, followed by a comparison of the simulated crop yield with the historical yield to evaluate the selected adaptation measures to reduce the impact of future climate scenarios. We observed that early sowing dates and medium planting density were the significant factors for achieving high wheat production. The simulation results revealed that the wheat yields would decrease in the near and far future under RCP 4.5 and RCP 8.5 scenarios. Our findings emphasize the requirement to adapt best measurements to improve yield, which involves early sowing by two weeks and maintaining a planting density of 150 plants per square meter. Experimentally, our results suggest that the DSSAT model, if calibrated carefully, can serve as a valuable tool for decision-making on adaptation practices of winter wheat under changing climates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, climate change has been one of the most complicated problems that human being has faced. Climate change adaptation (CCA) is considered to be an important component of risk management. In order to achieve adaptation, it is necessary to determine the indicators influencing adaptation in each community and this requires measurement and standard tools. The aim of this study is to determine and categorize the indicators of CCA. International electronic databases including Science Direct, Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar were investigated for only articles published in English language. In addition, Iranian databases including Irandoc, SID, and Magiran were investigated. There was no limitation on the methods of studies. Furthermore, snowball method was used for finding more articles while the ProQuest database was searched for related dissertations. The published documents from 1990 to November 2017 were gathered in this study. Out of 4439 publications initially search, 152 full texts were investigated. Finally, a total of 45 potentially relevant citations were included for full text review; in addition, fourteen other sources were investigated. Using snowball method, we found 24 other articles that were included in our final result. From the searches, 176 indicators were identified, while seven main domains were mentioned. Since in the articles, domains of adaptation are not in the form of a model, it is better to focus on this issue in the future and it seems that prioritizing and weighting domains in adaptation in different communities with different needs are an important issue. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change brings uncertain risks of climate-related natural hazards. The US Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA in Climate change: long-term trends and their implications for emergency management, 2011. https://www.fema.gov/pdf/about/programs/oppa/climate_change_paper.pdf) has issued a policy directive to integrate climate change adaptation actions into hazard mitigation programs, policies, and plans. However, to date there has been no comprehensive empirical study to examine the extent to which climate change issues are integrated into state hazard mitigation plans (SHMPs). This study develops 18 indicators to examine the extent of climate change considerations in the 50 SHMPs. The results demonstrate that these SHMPs treat climate change issues in an uneven fashion, with large variations present among the 50 states. The overall plan quality for climate change considerations was sustained at an intermediate level with regard to climate change-related awareness, analysis, and actions. The findings confirm that climate change concepts and historic extreme events have been well recognized by the majority of SHMPs. Even though they are not specific to climate change, mitigation and adaptation strategies that can help reduce climate change risks have been adopted in these plans. However, the plans still lack a detailed assessment of climate change and more incentives for collaboration strategies beyond working with emergency management agencies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change adversely impacts crop production and imposes a wide range of constraints on agricultural systems especially in water-limited environments. Management strategies to enhance adaptation capacity are needed to mitigate climate change effects. The objective of this study was to investigate the potential of changing planting dates and planting densities as adaptation strategies to climate change for irrigated and rainfed wheat for possible enhancement of crop yield, harvest index and water use efficiency at three locations in northeast of Iran (Mashhad, Sabzevar and Torbat-h). For this purpose, the outputs of five global climate models under RCP-4.5 and RCP-8.5 emission scenarios during three time periods (i.e., the 2020, 2050 and 2080) downscaled by MarkSimGCM were used to run the CSM-CERES-Wheat (v4.6) model. The results indicated that crop production will be reduced as affected by climate change based on prevailing and two other planting dates and planting densities in the future climate change, under all scenarios and years. In general, later planting dates with planting density of 400 plants m−2 caused higher production which leads to less yield reduction by about 8, 11 and 10% for irrigated wheat and 27, 21 and 26% for rainfed wheat on average across all periods and scenarios compared to current management practices in Mashhad, Sabzevar and Torbat-h, respectively. Based on this study, it seems that changing planting dates and densities can be beneficial for adaptation of wheat to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Using studies of places where heat waves are common, projected changes in heat waves in Metro Vancouver are assessed from a multi-disciplinary perspective with respect to the potential impacts of the physical change on the people and infrastructure with the intention of being better prepared for future events. Trends in maximum temperature parameters for Metro Vancouver for the past 75 years are generally not statistically significant; however, projections for 2041-2060 and 2081-2100 suggest that the region will experience such events more frequently in the future due to climate change. While Metro Vancouver, British Columbia (BC) generally does not typically experience heat waves it was strongly affected by a major heat event in July 2009, with temperature records being broken at Vancouver (≥31 °C) on the coast and at Abbotsford (≥36 °C) 65-km inland. A lack of sea breeze during this event meant that there was no cooling effect, and land surface temperatures over the downtown area approached 40 °C and excess deaths occurred. Many victims were either in the 65-74 age category, the vulnerable poor, or people with mental health issues. Because these events are rare, many buildings lack air-conditioning, and residents of Metro Vancouver under-anticipate their vulnerability. The costs of health-related impacts outweighed those related to higher electricity usage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change impacts in the Arctic will be differentiated by gender, yet few empirical studies have investigated how. We use a case study from the Inuit community of Iqaluit, Nunavut, to identify and characterize vulnerability and adaptive capacity of Inuit women to changing climatic conditions. Interviews were conducted with 42 Inuit women and were complimented with focus group discussions and participant observation to examine how women have experienced and responded to changes in climate already observed. Three key traditional activities were identified as being exposed and sensitive to changing conditions: berry picking, sewing, and the amount of time spent on the land. Several coping mechanisms were described to help women manage these exposure sensitivities, such as altering the timing and location of berry picking, and importing seal skins for sewing. The adaptive capacity to employ these mechanisms differed among participants; however, mental health, physical health, traditional/western education, access to country food and store bought foods, access to financial resources, social networks, and connection to Inuit identity emerged as key components of Inuit women's adaptive capacity. The study finds that gender roles result in different pathways through which changing climatic conditions affect people locally, although the broad determinants of vulnerability and adaptive capacity for women are consistent with those identified for men in the scholarship more broadly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study is to identify the major methods used by local farmers to adapt to the drought hazard and to examine factors influencing their decisions to adapt in Yongqiao District, China. A random sampling technique was used to select 200 households in Yongqiao, while descriptive statistics and binary logit models were used to analyze the data obtained from the households. The results show that most farmers in the study area were aware of climate change. They were taking measures to protect their livelihoods against perceived change in climate. Results indicate that factors explaining farmers' adaptation choices include gender, the level of education, farming experience, farm size, household income, and perceptions of climate change impacts. The findings of this study can help decision-makers to design appropriate adaptation policies to cope with and adapt in drought situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since recently, the potential of torrential downpour is increased and the flood damage shows increasing trend, in this study, the method to assess the flood vulnerability was established for the industrial parks, which is the driving power of the economic growth in Korea, and the results were analyzed. The vulnerability of each industrial parks was analyzed using three indicators: climate exposure, sensitivity and the adaptation ability, and the indicator value was calculated by selecting the proxy variable by each indicator. Among the primarily indicators, the final indicators were selected through the site investigation and in-depth interview. The vulnerability assessment was performed not only for the present but for the future (2020s, 2050s and 2100s). In the analysis results, Ulsan Mipo National Industrial Park was the most vulnerable for the present but in 2020s, Gwangyang National Industrial Park and Myeongji-Noksan National Industrial Park in 2050s and 2100s were assessed as most vulnerable. In the results of flooding vulnerability assessment, south coast industrial parks are the most vulnerable region during baseline and future. In addition, such industrial parks mostly built in the early phase of industrialization and they have advantage in import and export but were represented to be highly vulnerable due to aged infrastructures. In the industrial parks, as the enterprises are concentrated, it is easy to exchange the information and logistics, but the damage of natural disasters due to flooding can be aggravated due to the characteristics of the concentration. Actually, there are some cases that the industrial parks and the enterprises received the flooing damage in the highly vulnerable area by the torrential downpour. In this study, the vulnerability assessment was performed for the flooding damage by the torrential downpour for the industrial parks and the potential that the this study can be used as a useful decision-making tool in deciding the priority of adaptation ability was confirmed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rainfall variability and related hydrological disasters are serious threats to agricultural production in developing countries. Since projections of climate change indicate an increase in the frequency and intensity of climatic hazards such as flooding and droughts, it is important to understand communities' adaptive capacity to extreme hydrological events. This research uses a case study approach to characterize the current vulnerability and adaptive capacity of the food system to hydrological hazards in Panaillo, a flood-prone indigenous community in the Peruvian Amazon. Participatory methods were utilized to examine how biophysical and socioeconomic factors constrain or enable local adaptive capacity to climatic hazards over time. Seasonal flooding was shown to strongly influence agriculture and fishing cycles. Panaillo residents have developed several adaptive strategies to adjust to hydrological extremes, such as food-sharing and the cultivation of fast-growing crops on riverbeds. However, Panaillo residents generally lack the necessary human, physical, social, and natural resources to effectively employ their adaptive mechanisms as a result of major social and environmental changes in the area. Economic development, low institutional capacity, climate variability, and the assimilation social model in Peru all have profound effects on the food system and health by affecting the ways in which adaptive strategies and traditional livelihoods are practiced. Climate change has the potential to exacerbate these socioeconomic and biophysical drivers and further compromise community food systems in the Peruvian Amazon in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The combination of climate change and urbanization is worsening urban flooding problems. Estimating the amount of rainfall that a city can tolerate without flooding is a fundamental task that is difficult to perform, although large amounts of resources are invested in urban flood control. The purpose of this study is to determine the tolerance threshold for stormwater in a city. Based on hydrometeorological characteristics and existing flood control facilities, the urban adaptive water capacity is analyzed to determine the critical rainfall loading. Different critical levels are defined. The low critical point represents the beginning of the water accumulation, while the intermediate and high critical points are defined as flooding with heights of 300 and 600 cm, respectively, in low-lying areas. This study adopts a simple conceptual method to illustrate the critical levels instead of applying complex hydrologic and hydraulic modeling, which require high-resolution spatial data. Three cities and one township in Taiwan are used as urban case studies and to verify the conceptual method. As the capital, Taipei City utilizes the highest flood control engineering technology of our case studies; it is also the site in which the lowest rainfall thresholds cause the accumulation of water to reach the intermediate and high critical points because its small 'internal water areas' increase the height of floods rapidly. Conversely, Taichung City has a large internal water area that can disperse accumulating waters without increasing flood height. The estimations of urban storm tolerance thresholds increase the understanding of the limitations of water protection facilities. These estimations may be combined with rainfall forecasts to increase early warning functions and provide a reference point for subsequent planning related to urban flood adaptation strategies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adaptation to climate change, particularly flood risks, may come to pose large challenges in the future and will require cooperation among a range of stakeholders. However, there presently exists little research especially on the integration of the private sector in adaptation. In particular, recently developed state programs for adaptation have so far been focused on the public sector. Insurance providers may have much to contribute as they offer other parts of society services to appropriately identify, assess and reduce the financial impacts of climate change-induced risks. This study aims to explore how the institutional distribution of responsibility for flood risk is being renegotiated within the UK, Germany and Netherlands. Examining how the insurance industry and the public sector can coordinate their actions to promote climate change adaptation, the study discusses how layered natural hazard insurance systems may result from attempts to deal with increasing risks due to increasing incidences of extreme events and climate change. It illustrates that concerns over the risks from extreme natural events have prompted re-assessments of the current systems, with insurance requiring long-term legislative frameworks that defines the objectives and responsibilities of insurers and the different political authorities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Communities have competing priorities for limited financial resources. Identifying a capable and affordable tool that can be used in flood adaptation planning will assist in determining strategic investments and enhancing public communication. A state-of-the-art review was conducted of commonly available flood modeling and impact assessment tools that could be utilized for climate adaptation planning by municipalities. Assessment criteria such as flood modeling capabilities, geographic information system integration, damage assessment functions and ease of use were used. Although there are many tools available, based on the criteria used in assessing these models, the US Federal Emergency Management Agency's Hazus-MH tool appears to hold the most promise in being repurposed for adaptation planning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We assessed the potential impact of climate change on the yield of rainfed rice in the lower Mekong Basin and evaluated some adaptation options, using a crop growth simulation model. Future climate projections are based on IPCC SRES A2 and B2 scenarios as simulated by ECHAM4 global climate model downscaled for the Mekong Basin using the PRECIS system. We divided the basin into 14 agro-climatic zones and selected a sub-catchment within each zone for the model and assessed the impact for the period of 2010-2030 and 2030-2050. In general, the results suggest that yield of rainfed rice may increase significantly in the upper part of the basin in Laos and Thailand and may decrease in the lower part of the basin in Cambodia and Vietnam. The increase is higher during 2030-2050 compared to the period of 2010-2030 for A2 scenario. For B2 scenario, yield increase is higher during 2010-2030. The impact is mainly due to the change in rainfall and CO concentration in the atmosphere. We have tested widely used adaptation options such as changing planting date, supplementary irrigation, and reduction in fertility stress and found that negative impact on yield can be offset and net increase in yield can be achieved. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A prototype multi-purpose index is proposed for use in the evaluation of practices for adaptation to climate variability and change. The Index of Usefulness of Practices for Adaptation (IUPA) allows the user to assign weights and scores to a set of user-defined evaluation criteria. Individual criterion scores are aggregated into a final index value. Both the final value and the individual parameter scores provide useful information for improved decision making in the context of climate change. An innovative aspect of IUPA is that guidance is given to the user through the inclusion of recommendations on evaluation criteria and criterion-specific weight factors. These have been defined by a panel of experts from the Latin-American and Caribbean Region (LAC). Application of the index is demonstrated for an existing adaptation practice from the Coquimbo Region, Chile. The IUPA tool is recommended for use in the evaluation of adaptation practices in their design, implementation and post-implementation phase. It is practical for a quick first assessment or when limited financial resources are available, making the tool especially useful for practitioners in the developing world. The index is flexible both from the perspective of its construction and use. Additional expert opinions can easily be included in the future versions of the tool. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Netherlands the current dike design policy is to design flood defence structures corresponding to an agreed flooding probability with an extra safety board of at least 0.5 m. For river dikes a return period of 1,250 years is used to determine the design water levels. A problem with this strategy is that it builds on assumptions with regard to the intrinsically uncertain probability distributions for the peak discharges. The uncertainty is considerable and due to (1) the measuring records that are limited to about 100 years and (2) the changing natural variability as a result of climate change. Although the probability distributions are regularly updated based on new discharge data the nature of the statistics is such that a change in the natural variability of the peak discharge affects the probability distribution only long after the actual change has happened. Here we compare the performance of the probabilistic dike design strategy with the older strategy, referred to as the ‘self-learning dike’. The basic principle of the latter strategy is that the dike height is kept at a level equal to the highest recorded water level plus a certain safety margin. The two flood prevention strategies are compared on the basis of the flooding safety over a 100-year period. The Rhine gauge station at Lobith serves as case study. The results indicate that the self-learning dike performs better than the probabilistic design in terms of safety and costs, both under current and climate change conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The economic and social costs of extreme weather-related events have been increasing around the globe. There is some debate over how much of this past increase has been due to social factors and how much due to changes in frequency or characteristics of extreme events. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (2001a) has affirmed that humans are having a role in changing the climate and will have a larger role in the future. Although the changes in extreme events are by their nature both difficult to detect and difficult to model, the consensus is that there will be changes in the future. Through a risk-based decision-making analysis, it is concluded that society should make the additional investments to reduce vulnerability to this increased risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]