Search

In recent years, many have raised concerns regarding the need to develop sustainable practices in the cocoa sector and to prepare for impending threats associated with climate change. Although evidence suggests more needs to be done to address the environmental concerns surrounding cocoa, the sustainability of the sector cannot be understood without recognizing other socio‐economic and socio‐political factors. This paper uses a case study of Ghana—the world's second largest producer of cocoa—to problematize the often‐simplistic claims concerning the fate of the crop. While the paper draws upon a diverse disciplinary body of literature, it uses a political ecology lens to analyse the multifaceted problems facing the cocoa industry. The paper derives insights from 131 interviews conducted with a wide range of stakeholder groups in Ghana's capital (Accra) and leading cocoa‐producing regions (Ashanti and Western). The analysis reveals the need to challenge dominant narratives about the cocoa‐climate change nexus, as it highlights other threats to the sector. This includes the difficulty of securing youth labourers, the problem of "galamsey" (i.e., illegal artisanal mining), the issue of land scarcity, and the politicization of migrant workers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper focuses on climate actions through water activity and energy synergies supporting a water public operator—Canal de Isabel II—to fight against climate change in the region of Madrid. Actions for its mitigation such as the generation of electricity through water treatment activity are undoubtedly a great tool to face climate change and mitigate CO2 emissions. Led by the Strategic Plan of Canal, a water & energy cycle has been designed that, taking advantage of the different processes carried out, and thanks to the appropriate technologies, allows the generation of 100% renewable electrical energy. Through its solar energy plan, Canal is making an important technological effort to reduce energy consumption, taking advantage of the extensive area the water company has for its operations. At the same time, wastewater solutions ans possibilities are becoming more attractive. This paper explains how the Canal is transforming biogas from wastewater treatment plants into fuel for vehicles. On adaptation, this document describes measures for increasing the availability of resources, reducing water consumption, and preparing for new challenges, provided that water remains an essential resource affordable and accessible to all. In this sense, Canal's main contribution and responsibility is to ensure its availability in the event of water scarcity and to avoid the effects of extreme weather phenomena. In addition, the paper presents important projects related to such adaptations as the tariff structure to discourage high superfluous uses of water or the water reclaimed production. This integrated approach to water and energy production and consumption represents an unbeatable strategy that is recommended for dealing with this global problem in a sustainable way. Canal's activities prove that a water company can aspire to be more sustainable through the implementation of integrated projects on the water and energy nexus. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While water‐energy‐food (WEF) Nexus is one of the most important, and widely investigated, environmental topics of our time, previous stock taking efforts possess notable limitations, namely (i) their focus is restricted to research articles, and (ii) there is less focus on nexus permutations that begin with energy and food. This paper assembled more than 900 documents and systematically categorized them according to more than 10 key parameters (e.g. scale, methods, limitations), to characterize approaches, achieved outcomes and presence of variables likely to support on‐the‐ground change. Our results reveal that WEF Nexus activities are often driven by the water sector, undertaken at global and national scale and authored by experts from diverse backgrounds. Among the utilized methods, modelling and review (i.e. systematic) are the most common. While climate change and governance are routinely considered in WEF Nexus documents, gender, stakeholders and capacity are not. These findings highlight areas for improvement in the design of WEF Nexus initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To limit global warming, advocacy has increased in support of lowering greenhouse gas emissions. For instance, in agriculture, the use of compost and bio‐fertilizer is increasingly promoted. Therefore, this paper aims at investigating how sustainable agricultural policies may influence land use and farm income in the context of global climatic change. Thus, a mathematical programming model with a representative risk‐neutral and profit‐maximizing economic agent is applied, using survey data on 423 farmers in Togo, a West African country. The findings indicate that a combination of a subsidy and a credit policy appear to be the best incentive to promote the adoption of sustainable practices and to increase farm income. Therefore, a combination of subsidy and credit policy should be implemented to foster the adoption of sustainable practices and improve farmers' welfare. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the important role that the agricultural sector plays in sustaining growth and reducing poverty in developing countries, the adoption of practices that have the potential to simultaneously improve agricultural productivity while minimizing environmental impacts is essential. This paper examines the determinants of farmers’ perceptions of climate change and subsequent adoption of sustainable land management practices in the Niger basin of Benin. Binary and multivariate probit models are applied in a two‐stage regression procedure to cross‐sectional data collected through a survey of 545 randomly selected farm households in 28 villages. The findings indicate that there are substitutabilities among three pairs of sustainable land management practices being used by the farmers. Climate change perception is positively related to land tenure, experience in farming, number of relatives, tractor use, and membership in farmers’ organizations, and negatively related to household size, remoteness, and plough use. Moreover, the findings reveal that the uptake of land management practices is related to assets, land tenure, education level of the household head, remoteness, social network, non‐irrigated land size, having a farm located near a river/lake/stream, tractor and plough use, being a subsistence farmer or not, and memberships in farmers’ organizations. The adoption of sustainable land management practices could be encouraged through improving access to markets, adequate roads, and technologies, as well as by promoting membership in farmers’ organizations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reaching the economic, environmental and sustainability objectives of all societies requires overcoming several major energy challenges; it necessitates rapid progress in multiple areas. The scenario pathways presented in this paper describe transformative changes toward these goals, taking a broad view of the four main energy challenges faced by society in the 21st century: providing universal access to modern energy for all; reducing the impacts of energy production on human health and the environment; avoiding dangerous climate change; and enhancing energy security. The overarching objective of the paper is to provide policy guidance on how to facilitate the transformation of the energy system to achieve these multiple energy objectives. Particular focus is given to the required pace of the transformation at both the global and regional levels, and to the types of financial and policy measures that will be needed to ensure a successful transition. Synergies and trade-offs between the objectives are identified, and co-benefits quantified. The paper makes an important contribution to the scenario literature by approaching the global transition toward sustainable development in a more integrated, holistic manner than is common in other studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the impact of climate change on the decision of farmers to engage or not to engage in livestock activities and also on the choice of different livestock species in Kenya. To this end, cross-sectional household level data supplemented by long-term averages of climate data are used. The probit model is employed to derive the response of the probability of engaging in livestock activities to climate change. Probit and multivariate probit methods are employed to model the choice of different livestock species. Atmosphere–ocean global circulation models are used to project the impact of different climate scenarios on the probability of engaging in livestock activities and also of adopting different livestock species according to variations in climate. The results suggest that farmers adapt livestock management decisions to climate change. At low levels of temperature increase, the probability of engaging in livestock activities falls, but at higher levels of climate change, the probability rises. The results further show that as it gets hotter, farmers change their livestock choices from dairy cattle and sheep to beef cattle and goats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Securing sustainable livelihood conditions and reducing the risk of outmigration in savanna ecosystems hosted in the tropical semiarid regions is of fundamental importance for the future of humanity in general. Although precipitation in tropical drylands, or savannas, is generally more significant than one might expect, these regions are subject to considerable rainfall variability which causes frequent periods of water deficiency. This paper addresses the twin problems of “drought and desertification” from a water perspective, focusing on the soil moisture (green water) and plant water uptake deficiencies. It makes a clear distinction between long-term climate change, meteorological drought, and agricultural droughts and dry spells caused by rainfall variability and land degradation. It then formulates recommendations to better cope with and to build resilience to droughts and dry spells. Coping with desertification requires a new conceptual framework based on green-blue water resources to identify hydrological opportunities in a sea of constraints. This paper proposes an integrated land/water approach to desertification where ecosystem management supports agricultural development to build social-ecological resilience to droughts and dry spells. This approach is based on the premise that to combat desertification, focus should shift from reducing trends of land degradation in agricultural systems to water resource management in savannas and to landscape-wide ecosystem management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper studies the implications of high food prices resulting from climate change on food security in small islands, using Mauritius as a case‐study. Climate change may adversely impact prices of agricultural commodities. The study derives and calculates the government costs and the welfare effects of an increase in the world price of rice on consumers in Mauritius. Using an equilibrium displacement model, this study finds that an increase in the price of rice by 35%, as predicted by the literature on climate change and rice prices, will result in an increase of 28.8% in government spending, representing the additional outlays to support the subsidy scheme for food security. Using 2012 as the baseline, the welfare analysis results suggest that consumer surplus for ration rice consumers increases by 626 million Mauritian Rupees (MUR) or US$18 million while consumer surplus decreases by MUR454 million (US$13 million) for basmati rice consumers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change adaptation strategies that aim to minimize harm and maximize benefits related to climate change impacts have mushroomed at all levels of government in recent years. While many studies have explored barriers that stand in the way of their implementation, the factors determining their potential to mainstream adaptation into various sectors are less clear. In the present paper, we aim to address this gap for two international, six national, and six local adaptation strategies. Based on document analyses and 35 semi‐structured interviews, the 14 case studies also explore in how far the factors facilitating climate change adaptation are similar across levels of government or level‐specific. Although located at three different levels of government, we find that the 14 adaptation strategies analyzed here represent "one‐size‐fits‐all governance arrangements" that are characterized by voluntariness and a lack institutionalization. Since adaptation strategies are relatively weak coordination hubs that are unable to force adaptation onto sectoral policy agendas, they rely mainly on sectoral self‐interest in adapting to climate change, largely determined by problem pressure. We conclude that one‐size‐fits‐all governance arrangements are rarely adequate responses to complex challenges, such as climate change. Although climate change adaptation depends more on framework conditions such as problem pressure than on administrative or governance features, the findings presented here can help to understand under what circumstances adaptation is likely to make progress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mediterranean wetlands are of key interest in the preservation of biodiversity. However, their ecological water requirement is in constant competition with human uses, particularly in a context of aridity and climate change. This paper examines the case of the Ichkeul Lake‐Lagoon system located in the north of Tunisia in a river basin that is heavily contributing to the water supply of southern regions through water transfers. It maps out the various actors involved, their stakes, discourses and strategies, and explains the current degradation of the Ichkeul system by unpacking the decision‐making power of these actors. It confirms that marginal social groups, ecosystems and next generations are the main parties affected by current water allocation patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Conventional shipping is increasingly unable to address the social and economic needs of remote and underprivileged coastal and island communities. Barriers include rising fuel costs affecting the viability of on-water activities, which are compounded by the challenges presented by a lack of deepwater ports and related infrastructure that prevent docking by larger more fuel-efficient vessels. The environmental externalities of shipping-related fossil-fuel consumption, which harbour both local pollution and anthropogenic climate change impacts, adversely affect these communities. Amid limited research on strategies to address the challenges presented by conventional shipping methods to small island developing States ( SIDS), this paper proposes the adoption of policy initiatives for the adoption of small, modern non-fuel vessels that could assist these important yet underserved niches. One of several initiatives developing renewable-energy based shipping solutions is the Greenheart Project, an international non-profit organization in the process of developing an open-source hybrid solar-sail cargo vessel conforming to the conditions faced in coastal and island communities. This paper discusses the socio-economic and environmental challenges presented by conventional shipping with reference to SIDS and the potential of non-fuel shipping. Policy proposals to facilitate the beneficial adoption of such vessels in developing communities will also be offered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The growing demand for construction materials in South Tarawa, a remote atoll in the South Pacific, provides an example of the environmental and social challenges associated with the use of non-renewable resources in the context of small island countries threatened by coastal erosion and climate change. In many small Pacific island countries, the availability of construction materials is limited, with the majority mined from beaches and coastal reefs in an unsustainable manner. Growing demand for construction aggregates is resulting in more widespread sand mining by communities along vulnerable sections of exposed beach and reefs. This has serious consequences for coastal erosion and impacts on reef ecosystem processes, consequences that cannot be easily managed. Construction materials are also in high demand for infrastructure projects which are financed in part with support from international development agencies and donors. This paper reviews the various challenges and risks that aggregate mining poses to reefs, fish, and the coastal health of South Tarawa and argues that the long term consequences from ad hoc beach/reef mining over large areas are likely to be far greater than the impacts associated with environmentally sustainable, organized extraction. The paper concludes with policy recommendations that are also relevant for neighbouring island countries facing similar challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Adaptive strategies are important for reducing the vulnerability of atoll communities to climate change and sea level rise in both the short and long term. This paper seeks to contribute to the emerging discourse on migration as a form of adaptation to climate change based on empirical studies in the two atoll communities, Reef Islands and Ontong Java, which are located in the periphery of Solomon Islands. The paper will outline current migration patterns in the two island groups and discuss how some of this migration may contribute to adaptation to climate change and other stresses. It shows that migration currently improves access to financial and social capital, reduces pressure on natural resources and makes island communities less vulnerable to extreme weather events and other shocks - all factors that contribute positively to adaptive capacity. It also shows that there are major barriers to migration that reduce the efficacy of positive outcomes to both migrants and their home communities, including high transport costs and problems in gaining access to housing, employment and government services in urban destination areas. If it is accepted that voluntary migration may play a positive role in adaptation to climate change in exposed atoll communities, addressing some of the barriers to migration seems logical. This may be done by efforts to stimulate migrant income opportunities, by improving migrant living conditions and by improving the transport services to the islands. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The vulnerability of tourism-dependent communities, coastal tourism facilities, and beaches to climate change demands the use of measures that can urgently minimise vulnerability and in the long term achieve sustainable development. This paper makes policy recommendations to address climate change and sea level rise challenges in small island developing states. Using Barbados as a case study, the paper found that innovations in policies and projects have offset the past ills of mass tourism and fortuitously now serve as pre-emptive measures in adapting to climate change. The array of methods for combating these changes includes physical planning policies, integrated coastal zone management, and infrastructure projects. Among the key areas for policy innovation are the adoption of protection, accommodation, and retreat strategies, which are informed by rigorous cost-benefit analysis and stakeholder consultation. Ecosystem-based adaptation to climate change is also necessary, especially for islands where coral reef protection is urgent. Moreover, policy adjustments are required on building construction, water resources management, sewage treatment, coastal zone management, physical planning, and land management. Institutional constraints, including the lack of capacity to implement, monitor, and enforce measures, must also be addressed if progress is to be made in adapting to climate change. A major conclusion is that the severity of coastal damage, the importance of tourism to sustainable development, and the country's adaptive capacity play a key part in the selection and implementation of climate change adaptation measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change and variability present new challenges for agriculture, particularly for smallholder farmers who continue to be the mainstay of food production in developing countries. Recent global food crises have exposed the structural vulnerability of globalized agri-food systems, highlighting climate change as just one of a complex set of environmental, demographic, social and economic drivers generating instability and food insecurity, the impacts of which disproportionately affect poorer groups in marginal environments. Rather than search for single causes, there is a need to understand these changes at a systemic level. Improved understanding of and engagement with the adaptive strategies and innovations of communities living in conditions of rapid change provides an appropriate starting point for those seeking to shape agricultural innovation systems responsive to food insecurity and climate change. This paper draws lessons from selected country experiences of adaptation and innovation in pursuit of food security goals. It reviews three cases of systems of innovation operating in contrasting regional, socio-economic and agro-ecological contexts, in terms of four features of innovation systems more likely to build, sustain or enhance food security in situations of rapid change: (i) recognition of the multifunctionality of agriculture and opportunities to realize multiple benefits; (ii) access to diversity as the basis for flexibility and resilience; (iii) concern for enhancing capacity of decision makers at all levels; and (iv) continuity of effort aimed at securing the well-being of those who depend on agriculture. Finally, implications for policymakers and other stakeholders in agricultural innovation systems are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the vulnerability of South African agriculture to climate change and variability by developing a vulnerability index and comparing vulnerability indicators across the nine provinces of the country. Nineteen environmental and socio-economic indicators are identified to reflect the three components of vulnerability: exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity. The results of the study show that the regions most exposed to climate change and variability do not always overlap with those experiencing high sensitivity or low adaptive capacity. Furthermore, vulnerability to climate change and variability is intrinsically linked with social and economic development. The Western Cape and Gauteng provinces, which have high levels of infrastructure development, high literacy rates, and low shares of agriculture in total GDP, are relatively low on the vulnerability index. In contrast, the highly vulnerable regions of Limpopo, Kwazulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape are characterised by densely populated rural areas, large numbers of small-scale farmers, high dependency on rain-fed agriculture and high land degradation. These large differences in the extent of vulnerability among provinces suggest that policymakers should develop region-specific policies and address climate change at the local level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is exploring a mechanism to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) to address global warming. This represents a major expansion of earlier forest-oriented initiatives under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) that focused on afforestation and reforestation activities. While the scope of REDD projects is still being defined, potential categories include conservation, stock enhancement, and sustainable management, creating a range of new opportunities for forest-related climate projects. The core concept behind REDD is that deforestation trends can be slowed, halted, or even reversed conserving billions of tons of carbon that would otherwise be emitted. To succeed, REDD projects will need to control powerful drivers of deforestation and forest degradation operating at multiple levels and carried-out by a variety of actors, from rural people to political and economic elites. This case study of a REDD pilot project in northwest Cambodia explores how drivers might be contained under a project scenario and how the future international articulation of project design parameters could enable or constrain a global REDD strategy. The paper concludes that to be successful REDD projects will require a hybrid approach in which local drivers are controlled by communities and national drivers are mitigated through policy actions necessitating strong partnerships between diverse institutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

India has good reasons to be concerned about climate change as it could adversely affect the achievement of vital national development goals related to socio-economic development, human welfare, health, energy availability and use, and infrastructure. The paper attempts to develop a framework for integrated impact assessment and adaptation responses, using a recently built railroad coastal infrastructure asset in India as an example. The framework links climate change variables — temperature, rainfall, sea level rise, extreme events, and other secondary variables — and sustainable development variables — technology, institutions, economic, and other policies. The study indicates that sustainable development variables generally reduce the adverse impacts on the system due to climate change alone, except when they are inadequately applied. The paper concludes that development is a vital variable for integrated impact assessment. Well crafted developmental policies could result in a less-GHG intensive future, enhanced adaptive capacities of communities and systems, and lower impacts due to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding of how best to support those most vulnerable to climate stress is imperative given expected changes in climate variability. This paper investigates local adaptation strategies to climate variability, focusing on agricultural decision-making in a communal irrigation scheme in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province, South Africa. Research done through interviews, surveys and participatory methods demonstrates that adaptation strategies within a community are socially differentiated and present differing objectives and priorities. These results highlight the need for intervention and policy that support a heterogeneous response to a wide range of stresses. Evidence for climate change is clear and the need for adaptation is urgent. However, adaptation measures have to be sensitively integrated with ongoing development pathways to ensure they are sustainable and relevant to local priorities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current discussion of anticipated climate change impacts and future sea level rise is particularly relevant to small island states. An increase in natural hazards, such as floods and storm waves, is likely to have a devastating impact on small islands' coastlines, severely affecting targeted sustainable development. Coastal erosion, notably human-induced erosion, has been an ongoing threat to small island biodiversity, resources, infrastructure, and settlements, as well as society at large. In the context of climate change, the problem of coastal erosion and the debate surrounding it is gaining momentum. Before attributing associated impacts to climate change, current human activities need to be analysed, focusing not only on geomorphological and climatological aspects, but also on political and traditional cultural frameworks. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate the importance of the social-political-ecological systems analysis for adaptation strategies, and thus for future sustainable development. Coastal use is based on human constructs of the coast, as well as local perceptions and values ascribed to the coast. We use the case study of Anjouan, Comoros to differentiate between constructive and destructive practices on the coast, from both a mental and technical perspective. Beach erosion is described as more than a resource problem that manifests itself locally rather than nationally. Divergent political scales of interest impact future development as much as local action. Local action is not least framed by mental contribution and attribution of coasts as places for living, recreation and resource use. The present case study demonstrates that mental constructs of coasts as valuable areas can, in some cases, lead to the protection and preservation of beaches by initiatives of collective action. At the same time, local communities see the negative impacts of sand mining as causes of coastal erosion and, therefore, it is difficult to mobilize them to adapt to climate change and sea level rise. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small island developing States ( SIDS) have narrow resource bases and are usually extremely reliant on fossil fuel based energy for transport and electricity generation. These island economies are thus particularly vulnerable to the impacts of peak oil and also to climate change, impacts which are likely to not only hamper economic development but also adversely affect the quality of life of local inhabitants. In order to reduce the vulnerability of SIDS to peak oil, an urgent transition to renewable sources of energy is necessary. This paper propounds that the reform of power sector that took place in Caribbean and Pacific SIDS (particularly between 1970 and 2000) should have been viewed as an opportunity to re-orient power producers away from the proclivity to utilise conventional fossil fuel uses. Reasons why reform measures did not result in a substantive transition are put forward. Moreover, recommendations towards facilitating a transition to renewable energy in the power sector through future reforms are proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Progress in formulating and implementing effective adaptation policies is often hampered by a wide variety of barriers that are well documented in the literature. Among the barriers are lack of awareness, certainty, resources and political commitment. Since these and other barriers can be overcome (e.g., by raising awareness, closing knowledge gaps, and increasing resources), numerous decision-support frameworks (mainly written guidelines) have been developed for this purpose. The present paper takes stock of both the barriers in adaptation policymaking, as documented in the literature, and the guidelines that aim to facilitate public policies on climate change adaptation. It then compares to what degree selected adaptation guidelines serve as knowledge-brokerage tools that provide guidance on how to overcome the barriers addressed in the scientific literature. The comparison shows that adaptation guidelines address barriers of adaptation policymaking neither comprehensively nor systematically. Since most adaptation guidelines focus on (subjective) experiences with good practices than on empirical research findings, we conclude that they represent a missed opportunity of scientific knowledge-brokerage in climate change adaptation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In order to meet long-term climate change mitigation objectives, emissions cuts are required in all regions across the globe and in all sectors, including transport. In financing this effort, the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) are until now the only international climate policy instruments under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change that provide incentives for emissions reductions in developing countries. More recently, the Clean Technology Fund (CTF) was established. In this paper, we show that the impact of these financing instruments on transport has been very limited, due to methodological difficulties, a data-intensive monitoring process and the limited funding available. We argue that the transport sector is not likely to play a significant role in the continuation of a carbon credit offsetting scheme, unless these methodological requirements are simplified and significantly more funding is available. In the post-2012 climate regime, there may be substantial international funding available in addition to existing credit schemes and international funds, which could be channeled through nationally appropriate mitigation actions (NAMAs). This can provide new and better opportunities for sustainable transport in developing countries. We propose a framework for NAMAs, including types of policies and measures, measurement, reporting and verification of the actions, and an institutional and financial structure. We conclude that climate funding needs to be aligned closely with domestic and multilateral development finance flows in order to make a difference for sustainable transport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global climate change is an important cause of biodiversity loss. The conservation, sustainable management and use of biodiversity resources are key factors that can be effectively used to minimize the adverse impacts of global climate change. Efforts to understand and address the linkages between global climate change and biodiversity loss are both urgent and timely. Integrating responses related to these two global environmental challenges is especially relevant for small island developing States (SIDS) because the adverse impacts of climate change can impose severe stresses on biodiversity resources that are fragile, vulnerable and already under stress and the people who depend upon them. This paper argues that comprehensive assessments of adverse impacts of global climate change on the biodiversity resources of SIDS, and an improved understanding of relevant climate change related adaptation measures and sustainable energy policies (that are based on the principles of conservation, sustainable management and use of biodiversity resources) will enable SIDS to become more resilient and to develop better response capacities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

If the objective of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is to be achieved, Parties must commit themselves to meeting meaningful long-term targets that, based on current knowledge, would minimize the possibility of irreversible climate change. Current indications are that a global mean temperature rise in excess of 2–3 °C would enhance the risk of destabilizing the climate system as we know it, and possibly lead to catastrophic change such as a shutdown of the deep ocean circulation, and the disintegration of the West Arctic Ice Sheet. Observations have shown that for many small island developing States (SIDS), life-sustaining ecosystems such as coral reefs, already living near the limit of thermal tolerance, are highly climate-sensitive, and can suffer severe damage from exposure to sea temperatures as low as 1 °C above the seasonal maximum. Other natural systems (e.g., mangroves) are similarly susceptible to relatively low temperature increases, coupled with small increments of sea level rise. Economic and social sectors, including agriculture and human health, face similar challenges from the likely impacts of projected climate change. In light of known thresholds, this paper presents the view that SIDS should seek support for a temperature cap not exceeding 1.5–2.0 °C above the pre-industrial mean. It is argued that a less stringent post-Kyoto target would frustrate achievement of the UNFCCC objective. The view is expressed that all countries which emit significant amounts of greenhouse gases should commit to binding reduction targets in the second commitment period, but that targets for developing countries should be less stringent than those agreed for developed countries. Such an arrangement would be faithful to the principles of equity and would ensure that the right of Parties to attain developed country status would not be abrogated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is a major custodian of one of the ocean's major natural resources: tuna. The commercial tuna fisheries sector is the most important economic sector in the RMI and is thus a substantial contributor to this tiny island nation's GDP. Tuna catch and its associated revenues has fluctuated in line with climatic events such as the El Niño/La Niña Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and, in the last decade, national fisheries development policies have begun to capitalize on the positive effects that ENSO warm events have had on the tuna populations. However, global warming is expected to have a significant impact on ENSO, and not necessarily in positive ways. This paper will focus on the relationship between environment and economic development in the RMI fisheries sector. In particular, the linkages between global warming and its effects on the tuna fisheries sector must be better understood and uncertainties accounted for so that impacts are appropriately addressed and integrated into sustainable fisheries development policies. Conclusions reached are that new fisheries development strategies that emphasize environmental-based planning are required. The emerging ecosystem-based approach to fisheries management is a start, as are the various international initiatives in furthering our understanding of the linkages between climate and ocean systems currently underway. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) is a rapidly changing and developing region which is making the transition to a market based economy. Along with economic reforms, the countries of the region are engaged in substantial environmental reforms, including climate change mitigation activities. Mitigation of, and adaptation to, the consequences of climate change are costly processes. It is therefore of great importance that the national and international mechanisms addressing these problems use methods both environmentally sound and economically efficient. Through two case studies that address the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and the Green Investment Scheme (GIS) in Romania, this paper explores challenges, related tasks and main problems in the establishment of mechanisms of the Kyoto Protocol in Central and Eastern Europe. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China is the country with the largest coal mining production and consumption in the world, but due to a large amount of coal burning, air pollution and climate change are exasperating related problems. The previous literature mainly has discussed coal mine production and environmental pollution, but failed to take into account external factors such as climate change and seldom discussed the relationship between coal mine land use and land restoration. Therefore, this study uses the meta‐Epsilon‐Based Measure two‐stage Data Envelopment Analysis under the exogenous model and incorporates coal mine land use and land restoration use into the model to explore the relationship between the two under climate change. The research results are as follows. (1) If the external climate factors are not considered, then the phenomenon of overestimation or underestimation of the technology gap arises. (2) The efficiency value of the coal mining stage in most provinces is generally higher than the land restoration efficiency value. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change has had a significant impact on rain-fed agricultural production in developing countries. Smallholder farmers are the most vulnerable, and currently must make production decisions in a high risk and uncertain environment with regard to rainfall and temperature. This paper uses climate and household survey data to analyse farmer perceptions regarding climate change, adaptation measures taken in response to these changes, and how well these perceptions correlate with meteorological data in Kenya. We find that a significant number of farmers perceive climate change as real, and that they are particularly concerned about changes in rainfall and temperature. Changing crop varieties is predominantly used as an adaptation measure since extension messages often encourage adoption of drought-resistant varieties. Major factors influencing farmer perceptions include age of the farmer, which is often associated with more farming experience and subsequent extension service. Except in low potential zones, farmers' perceptions of climatic variability are in line with climatic data records. Better education, access to extension messages, farm size and credit facilities are necessary for farmers to decide to adapt to climate change. The paper further assesses barriers to the adoption of various adaptation strategies, and lack of finances and knowledge have been found to inhibit adaptation response within the smallholder farming sector. Findings imply that effective adaptation to threats posed by climate variability and change requires a multi-dimensional collaborative approach, with different stakeholders playing key roles in providing support services in terms of education, extension, credit and meteorological information. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on Landsat MSS/TM/OLI (1975-2018), MODIS NDVI (2000-2015), and DMSP/OLS (1992-2013) multitemporal remote sensing data, as well as annual average precipitation and temperature data from meteorological stations (1980-2018) and SRTM DEM data, this study extracted information on climate change, human activity, and eco-environmental factors in the Zijin Mountain (ZJM) area of Shanxi Province, and then analyzed the spatiotemporal changes in ecological structure, landscape structure, and climate response. The results revealed that in the ZJM area some sustainable development indicators associated with human activity, ecology, climate, and landscape geography have changed. Specifically, over the 44-year period from 1975 to 2018, the urban and rural construction land area increased by 4.29 times; in the 22-year period from 1992 to 2013, the regional light index has increased by 26.9 times; in the past 32 years, that is, from 1987 to 2018, the average vegetation index of the entire basin increased by about 54.7%, the vegetation cover exhibited a gradual positive trend, and the land use types in the ZJM area were mainly converted from bare land to grassland or forest. Compared with 1987, the area of bare land decreased 32.5% by 2018, whereas the forest and grassland areas increased by 85.7% and 40.7%, respectively. In addition, over the 44-year period from 1975 to 2018, the road density increased by 8.57 times. The area affected by human activities, comprised roads, urban and rural construction land, and their buffer areas, accounted for 64.87% of the total study area. As a result, the fragmentation index of landscape patches has increased by 6.81 times since 1987. We conclude that in the ZJM area, the ecosystem type has transformed from an indigenous mountainous grassland to mountainous arid agriculture, and from an isolated habitat to a fragmented habitat. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding local adaptation to climate change is critical for the overall success of adaptation practices in Europe and around the world. Although it becomes more urgent by the day, existing literature does not adequately touch upon the topic of climate adaptation in small municipalities. This article addresses this gap. It explores whether adaptation measures in small municipalities are overlooked in research focused on other aspects of urban environment, or whether such measures are indeed inadequate. Based on a large quantitative survey among Bavarian municipalities (n = 401), we conducted 11 qualitative case studies to answer the following two questions. First, how active are small municipalities in Bavaria, Germany, in climate change adaptation? Second, why and how do municipal adaptation frontrunners implement adaptation measures and what lessons can we learn from their experience? Our findings confirm that small municipalities rarely adapt to climate change, and when they do, their actions usually target water-related issues. Most often measures are responsive and pragmatic, instead of being preventive and transformative. The fact that the small municipality representatives that we have interviewed were not able to distinguish between adaptation and mitigation measures clearly illustrates the lack of local adaptation capacities. We conclude that national funding for municipal adaptation coordinators or networks is a promising way to improve local capacities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The adverse impacts of climate change, in many cases, aggravate existing gender inequalities and hinder developing countries from achieving the targets set by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It is, therefore, crucial to understand whether there exists a gender gap in climate change adaptation and investigate the factors explaining the gap to reduce the vulnerability of the farming households to surging climatic risks. Using data from 2279 farm households in Ethiopia and applying a multivariate probit model and exogenous switching treatment effect regression method, this study examines the existing gender gap in climate change adaptations among farmers in Ethiopia and factors contributing to this relationship. The results show a significant gender gap in climate change adaptation in farming households due to the differences in both observable and unobservable characteristics of male‐ and female‐headed households. It indicates that reducing the gap can enhance climate change adaptation by female‐headed households by almost 19%. Women's workload in household chores significantly reduces their likelihood to adopt climate change adaptation measures. Therefore, unless policies proposed target institutional factors, including social and cultural barriers, traditional gender norms and division of labor, and other intrinsic behavioral issues, addressing only observed characteristics may not fully address the gender gap. To bring about transformational changes in the existing gender norms and social attitudes, long‐term gender‐informed policies are essential, along with short‐term projects, to address the gender gap in climate change adaptation through the provision of equitable opportunities for all. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The interaction of climate and development threatens to create a paradox: economic development could accelerate climate change, which in turn could block further development, locking the world into existing patterns of inequality as the natural environment deteriorates. The solution to this paradox is far from obvious. What analytical tools are needed to chart a path that leads toward sustainable, low-carbon economic development? This article reviews the implications for climate policy of the climate economics and development literature, focusing on three key areas of judgments and assumptions that are built into a number of leading climate-economics models: 1) the treatment of climate science, risk, and uncertainty in climate-economics models; 2) questions of abatement technologies and costs, including a focus on the cost effectiveness method of economic analysis; and 3) ethical issues surrounding the distribution of the costs of emission reductions and adaptation measures. The article concludes that since climate and development goals are inextricably linked, there is a need for a new economic analysis that can help interpret and guide the creation of an innovative, low-carbon path to economic development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores the impact of economic development on energy consumption and climate change using Malaysian data from 1977 to 2018. We employ five alternative indices—gross domestic product, financial development, industry value‐added, agricultural value‐added, and manufacturing value‐added—to assess economic development. Three alternative proxies (electricity, oil, and fossil fuel consumption) are employed to determine the energy consumption level. The climate change variable has been approximated through the level of CO2 emission and the average temperature for the country. Data has been analysed through three‐stage least square, vector autoregression, and innovative accounting approach. Results indicate that a higher level of economic development leads to higher energy consumption, which contributes to climate change. Moreover, the increase in urbanization and transportation also increases the level of carbon emissions. Forestation, on the other hand, plays a vital role in the improvement of environmental quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the ecological trends of the relict habitats in the Luoshan Nature Reserve (LNR) has an important role in the persistence of endangered species and the socio‐economic sustainability in the Ningxia section of the arid desertification belt in North China. Based on data from the Landsat Multispectral Scanner (MSS)/Thematic Mapper (TM)/Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+)/Operational Land Imager (OLI) sensors (from 1977 to 2017), the MODIS normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and net primary productivity (NPP) (from 2000 to 2017), the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) digital elevation model (DEM), annual average air temperature and precipitation (from 1977 to 2017), typical anthropogenic factors (population size, cultivated land and residential area) and natural ecological elements (MSS/TM/ETM+/OLI/MODIS NDVI and NPP) were quantitatively contrasted and analyzed for potential correlations. Some indicators of human activities, ecological processes and landscape geography have changed in the LNR. The proportion of residential area increased 3.09‐fold from 1977 to 2017. The population increased 34.30‐fold due to ecological immigration policy implementation in the Hongsipu immigration district. Before immigration, cultivated land increased, but after immigration, this land decreased quickly. Most of the dry‐cultivated land was converted through afforestation and a small part of the land was converted to irrigate cultivation land. We conclude that natural evolution led to the ecological relics, the isolated management to the LNR has objectively created an ecological island that will accelerate inbreeding depression and reduce biodiversity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change involves increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide concentration which is driven by anthropogenic emissions. Afforestation, which is the establishment of forests on previously non‐forested lands, could be a suitable climate change mitigation strategy. The aim of this research is to evaluate the carbon sequestration capability of the Eucalyptus and Prosopis species in the Reza‐Abad afforestation park in western Iran. For this aim, three stands of any species were selected. For quantitative assessment, a transect was implemented at the length of 100 m. In trees located of transects, the general characteristics of species were measured. Also, for estimating the amount of litter, a sample plot has been measured at the center of the quadrate. These samples were taken from the afforested area, the control area inside the afforested area and another control area outside. In each stand, species were selected randomly and one‐eighth of the whole stand was taken for calculating the percentage of carbon and aerial biomass. Then the aboveground organs were weighted and after the transfer of different plant organs to the laboratory, the conversion factor of carbon sequestration of the plant organs was determined individually by combustion method. Also, soil samples were also collected from two depths of 0–15 and 15–30 cm in each of the cultivated and control parts. The results showed that there is a significant difference between the species and Prosopis has higher carbon sequestration than Eucalyptus. The carbon sequestration among different organs showed a significant difference, carbon sequestration was 19.24 t/ha for Eucalyptus and 18.43 t/ha for Prosopis. After an economic calculation, it was concluded that afforestation has a positive effect on the reduction of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Hence, these results allow decision makers to change land use from desert area to forest, and planting the Prosopis species is more recommendable than Eucalyptus for afforestation in such areas which are economically profitable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article re‐examines the persistence in natural gas consumption using an alternative methodology. We compare the results of traditional panel unit root tests with those provided by Bahmani‐Oskooee et al., which allow for both sharp and smooth breaks. Our analysis uses data for the G7 countries over the 1965–2016 years. The empirical findings show that while traditional unit root tests with sharp breaks lean towards the non‐stationarity of the series for all the G7 countries, modeling breaks in our unit root testing methodology can assert that natural gas consumption is non‐stationary only for Canada, France, Italy, and USA. These results imply that, for the majority of our sample, energy demand management policies designed to shrink energy consumption will have temporary effects, as energy consumption will return to its trend path. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change poses a major threat to agricultural production and food security in India, and climate‐smart agriculture (CSA) is crucial in addressing the potential impacts. Using survey data from 1,267 farm households in 25 villages from Bihar and Haryana in the Indo‐Gangetic Plains, this study analyzes the factors that determine the probability and level of adoption of multiple CSA practices, including seeds of stress‐tolerant varieties, minimum tillage, laser land leveling, site‐specific nutrient management and crop diversification. We applied a multivariate probit model for the simultaneous multiple adoption decisions, and ordered probit models for assessing the factors affecting the level of adoption. The adoption of the various CSA practices is interrelated, whereas several factors, including household characteristics, plot characteristics, market access and major climate risks are found to affect the probability and level of CSA adoption. Climate‐smart agriculture (CSA) adoption and its intensity also vary significantly between eastern Bihar, which is relatively poor and densely populated, and north‐western Haryana. Engaging multiple stakeholders such as farmers, agricultural institutions, agricultural service providers and concerned government departments at the local level is crucial for the large‐scale uptake of CSA. The study, therefore, calls for agricultural policy reforms so that most of the issues related to the uptake of CSA can be adequately addressed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study assesses the impact of farmer field schools (FFS) on the productivity of vegetable farming in vegetable‐producing areas of East Java and Bali, Indonesia. The FFS have equipped over 3,000 vegetable farmers with integrated crop management knowledge applicable to chilies and tomatoes. The FFS are expected to enhance farmers’ capacity such that they can increase production. This study employs a difference‐in‐differences (DiD) method to overcome selection bias. A survey of 250 FFS‐graduated farmers and 250 non‐FFS farmers were purposively randomly selected from the overall community of farmers. Focus group discussion was used to support the survey. The results indicate that FFS were successful for enhancing farmers’ capability in vegetable farming. Farmers who participated in FFS have higher productivity than those who did not. Farmers also could adapt and adopt the knowledge gained from FFS as they underwent a process of learning by doing. The impacts of the increase in farmers’ capacity can be more evident if weaknesses during the FFS preparation and implementation can be overcome, to ensure more participation, flexibility to fit different conditions/needs and continuous learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fisheries catches are known to be widely underreported, and much of their value flows in informal markets. Goods and services that are not directly sold in a market also have a corresponding economic value, here termed ‘shadow value’, which can apply to discarded fish—or those that are consumed but not sold (e.g., subsistence catches). Here, we estimate the monetary value of fisheries catches in Panama that are landed but not reported, or that are discarded at sea; this includes catches from artisanal and industrial fleets, as well as recreational and subsistence fisheries. Based on available data, we estimate that the market and shadow value of unreported catches in Panama in 2010 was around US$92 million, equal to approximately 43% of the total reported landed value. In the case of discarded fish, the shadow value represents the potential but entirely unrealized economic benefit of landing such fish; in the case of unreported landings, unreported market value represents only the first link in the potentially sophisticated informal seafood economy. One must be careful in considering these results for policy. It is possible that, rather than seeking to capture these ‘lost’ benefits, fish that are discarded or unreported should not have been caught at all, for example, if they are juveniles or of threatened species; conversely, unreported subsistence catches are crucial for food security throughout the world. These results help contextualize the scale of unreported fisheries in economic terms, and can inform subsequent policies and strategies to ensure social, ecological, and economic sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

'Green jobs' are often presented as a simultaneous solution for the economic downturn and the environmental crisis, particularly as they relate to sustainable development in energy and climate change. Federal, state, and municipal authorities have employed a variety of policy tools to boost job creation within their jurisdictions. This study focuses on the role that state policies play in creating green jobs. It examines two generic policy tools - regulations and incentives - each of which can be aimed at advancing energy efficiency or renewable energy production, and assesses the relative impact they have had on generating green jobs. In order to measure this impact, we utilize panel data compiled by the Pew Charitable Trusts, which contain a state-level count of green jobs from 1998 to 2007. The results of the analysis suggest that regulations, particularly those that mandate action on renewable energy, are likely to increase the number of private sector green jobs in states. Regulations with clear guidelines and targets tend to reduce uncertainty in business, and can lead to increased private sector investment and job availability. This study provides practical lessons regarding the type and design of policy instruments and regulations on renewable energy, which effectively encourage green job growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The long-term threat of sea-level rise to coral atoll and reef island communities in Kiribati, Tuvalu and other nations has raised the possibility of international migration. Historical resettlements in the Pacific may provide valuable insight into the long-term effect of future climate change-related migration on communities. This study evaluates the challenges faced by Gilbertese people resettled from modern-day Kiribati to Ghizo in the Solomon Islands by the British colonial administration in the mid-1900s. Drawing upon field interviews (n = 45) conducted in 2011 and the available historical literature, the study examines the circumstances of the initial failed resettlement in the equatorial Phoenix Islands, the subsequent relocation to Ghizo, and the recent concerns of the Gilbertese in Ghizo. Focus is placed on the struggle to recover from the 2007 tsunami that devastated the unprepared community. The analysis reveals that uncertainty about land tenure (raised by 61% of respondents) persists 60 years after resettlement, and is linked to the ability to recover from the tsunami, tensions with the Melanesian population, concerns over political representation, cultural decline, and education and employment opportunities. The Gilbertese experience can serve as a cautionary tale for policymakers considering mechanisms for facilitating climate change-related migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]