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Atypical teratoid rhabdoid tumors (ATRT) are divided into MYC, TYR and SHH subgroups, suggesting diverse lineages of origin. Here, we investigate the imaging of human ATRT at diagnosis and the precise anatomic origin of brain tumors in the Rosa26-Cre ERT2 ::Smarcb1 flox/flox model. This cross-species analysis points to an extra-cerebral origin for MYC tumors. Additionally, we clearly distinguish SHH ATRT emerging from the cerebellar anterior lobe (CAL) from those emerging from the basal ganglia (BG) and intra-ventricular (IV) regions. Molecular characteristics point to the midbrain-hindbrain boundary as the origin of CAL SHH ATRT, and to the ganglionic eminence as the origin of BG/IV SHH ATRT. Single-cell RNA sequencing on SHH ATRT supports these hypotheses. Trajectory analyses suggest that SMARCB1 loss induces a de-differentiation process mediated by repressors of the neuronal program such as REST, ID and the NOTCH pathway., (© 2023. Springer Nature Limited.)

While apneas are associated with multiple pathological and fatal conditions, the underlying molecular mechanisms remain elusive. We report that a mutated form of the transcription factor Mafa (Mafa 4A ) that prevents phosphorylation of the Mafa protein leads to an abnormally high incidence of breath holding apneas and death in newborn Mafa 4A/4A mutant mice. This apneic breathing is phenocopied by restricting the mutation to central GABAergic inhibitory neurons and by activation of inhibitory Mafa neurons while reversed by inhibiting GABAergic transmission centrally. We find that Mafa activates the Gad2 promoter in vitro and that this activation is enhanced by the mutation that likely results in increased inhibitory drives onto target neurons. We also find that Mafa inhibitory neurons are absent from respiratory, sensory (primary and secondary) and pontine structures but are present in the vicinity of the hypoglossal motor nucleus including premotor neurons that innervate the geniohyoid muscle, to control upper airway patency. Altogether, our data reveal a role for Mafa phosphorylation in regulation of GABAergic drives and suggest a mechanism whereby reduced premotor drives to upper airway muscles may cause apneic breathing at birth., (© 2022. The Author(s).)

Retinoblastoma is the most frequent intraocular malignancy in children, originating from a maturing cone precursor in the developing retina. Little is known on the molecular basis underlying the biological and clinical behavior of this cancer. Here, using multi-omics data, we demonstrate the existence of two retinoblastoma subtypes. Subtype 1, of earlier onset, includes most of the heritable forms. It harbors few genetic alterations other than the initiating RB1 inactivation and corresponds to differentiated tumors expressing mature cone markers. By contrast, subtype 2 tumors harbor frequent recurrent genetic alterations including MYCN-amplification. They express markers of less differentiated cone together with neuronal/ganglion cell markers with marked inter- and intra-tumor heterogeneity. The cone dedifferentiation in subtype 2 is associated with stemness features including low immune and interferon response, E2F and MYC/MYCN activation and a higher propensity for metastasis. The recognition of these two subtypes, one maintaining a cone-differentiated state, and the other, more aggressive, associated with cone dedifferentiation and expression of neuronal markers, opens up important biological and clinical perspectives for retinoblastomas., (© 2021. The Author(s).)

NRAS and its effector BRAF are frequently mutated in melanoma. Paradoxically, CRAF but not BRAF was shown to be critical for various RAS-driven cancers, raising the question of the role of RAF proteins in NRAS-induced melanoma. Here, using conditional ablation of Raf genes in NRAS-induced mouse melanoma models, we investigate their contribution in tumour progression, from the onset of benign tumours to malignant tumour maintenance. We show that BRAF expression is required for ERK activation and nevi development, demonstrating a critical role in the early stages of NRAS-driven melanoma. After melanoma formation, single Braf or Craf ablation is not sufficient to block tumour growth, showing redundant functions for RAF kinases. Finally, proliferation of resistant cells emerging in the absence of BRAF and CRAF remains dependent on ARAF-mediated ERK activation. These results reveal specific and compensatory functions for BRAF and CRAF and highlight an addiction to RAF signalling in NRAS-driven melanoma.

How metabolism regulators play roles during early development remains elusive. Here we show that PFKFB4 (6-phosphofructo-2-kinase/fructose-2,6-bisphosphatase 4), a glycolysis regulator, is critical for controlling dorsal ectoderm global patterning in gastrulating frog embryos via a non-glycolytic function. PFKFB4 is required for dorsal ectoderm progenitors to proceed towards more specified fates including neural and non-neural ectoderm, neural crest or placodes. This function is mediated by Akt signalling, a major pathway that integrates cell homeostasis and survival parameters. Restoring Akt signalling rescues the loss of PFKFB4 in vivo. In contrast, glycolysis is not essential for frog development at this stage. Our study reveals the existence of a PFKFB4-Akt checkpoint that links cell homeostasis to the ability of progenitor cells to undergo differentiation, and uncovers glycolysis-independent functions of PFKFB4.