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Past studies of Sophora sect. Edwardsia using traditional phylogenetic and population genetic markers have been unable to produce a resolved species phylogeny of this recent radiation of shrubs and...

Sophora sect. Edwardsia is a group of 19 species largely confined to the South Pacific, with New Zealand the centre of species diversity. We used DNA and morphological analyses to investigate the o...

Chemotaxonomic analysis of kōwhai leaf extracts in New Zealand are limited with previous reports of Sophora tetraptera having a flavonoid profile distinct from S. microphylla sensu lato and S. pros...

Forty-four rhizobial isolates from New Zealand endemic Sophora species growing in natural conditions were characterised and the effectiveness of selected isolates with regard to growth and N2 fixation of different Sophora species was tested. Sequences for the housekeeping genes (concatenated recA, gln11 and rpoB) of the isolates were diverse but sequences for their symbiosis genes (nifH and nodC) were similar. Generally, isolates from the same field site showed similar housekeeping gene sequences. All isolates were Mesorhizobium. Twenty-six of the isolates aligned with Mesorhizobium species previously isolated from New Zealand native Sophora on the basis of their housekeeping gene sequences, but 18 isolates separated into two groups and a pair of isolates clearly separated from all Mesorhizobium type strains. DNA–DNA hybridisations indicated that isolates in the two groups could belong to two novel Mesorhizobium species. Rhizobial isolates with different housekeeping gene sequences (but similar symbiosis gene sequences) gave similar increases in dry weight and total N content of four Sophora species under glasshouse conditions.

We examined the origins of Sophora seeds collected from the beaches of the Kermadec and Chatham Islands using chloroplast DNA sequencing and comparison with published sequences of known provenance. Sophora does not grow on the Kermadec Islands but two species grow on the Chatham Islands, both in low numbers. All seeds sequenced were confirmed to be from Sophora sect. Edwardsia. Several seeds exhibited novel DNA sequences that had not been found in past sampling. The remaining haplotypes have all been previously detected in the North and/or South Islands and some have also been recorded from Chile, Gough Island or the Juan Fernandez Islands. The two haplotypes that had been sequenced in the resident Chatham Islands S. chathamica population were both found in the beach-cast seeds from the islands. However, an additional four haplotypes were also detected in the Chatham Islands beach-cast seeds, indicating dispersal from elsewhere.

The genome of Sophora toromiro (Phil.) Skottsb. (Papilionaceae) is characterised by means of chromosome counts of accessions called Vina del Mar Botanical Garden (JBV), Goteborg (Got) and Titze. Karyotypes were obtained and genome size quantified using flow cytometry and compared to the closely related species Sophora macrocarpa J.E.Sm. and Sophora cassioides (Phil.) Sparre. No differences were detected in chromosome number of Sophora at intra-specific or inter-specific levels with 2n = 2x = 18. Analyses on the symmetry coefficients CVcl and Mca shows affinity between the analysed material of the Titze line. The graph clearly indicates differences between S. toromiro lines if compared with S. cassioides and S. macrocarpa. Genome size range from 788 Mbp for S. cassioides, 795 Mbp for S. macrocarpa and a range of 796–808 Mbp in S. toromiro. This is the first report of chromosome number and genome size for S. toromiro, S. macrocarpa and S. cassioides. This is of particular importance in S. toromiro, ...

Thirteen rhizobial strains isolated from New Zealand Carmichaelia spp., Clianthus puniceus, Montigena novae-zelandiae (Montigena) and Sophora spp. and the Australian Swainsona galegifolia in the current or previous studies were tested for their ability to nodulate Montigena. Only rhizobial strains isolated from Carmichaelia spp., and those from Clianthus puniceus that produced functional nodules on their original host, and strains from Montigena produced functional nodules on Montigena. Strains that produced functional nodules on Sophora spp. or Swainsona galegifolia did not nodulate Montigena. Strains that nodulated Montigena, identified here or previously as Mesorhizobium spp., had variable 16S ribosomal RNA, recA and glnII but specific nifH, nodA and nodC genes. Results indicate that Montigena shares rhizobia with its closely related Carmichaelia and Clianthus but not Sophora spp. or Swainsona galegifolia and that the ability of different rhizobial strains to produce functional nodules on Montigena, Ca...

The karyotype of Sophora tetraptera (Fabaceae (Leguminosae), subfam. Papilionoideae) is reported for the first time. The chromosome number, 2n = 18, coincides with former reports and is the most common number for the genus. The chromosomes are small (average length 1.65 (Am). The karyotype is composed of 8 m (metacentric) + 1 sm (submetacentric) pairs. Microsatellites were observed on the short arm of the only sm pair. The intrachromosomal and interchromosomal asymmetry indices were A1 = 0.16 and A2 = 0.12, respectively. The nine species of Sophora analysed karyotypically so far in the literature suggest that karyotypic features are useful. The diversification of the group apparently has been accompanied by some chromosomal rearrangements yielding differences in karyotype formula and secondary constrictions. Thus, karyotypic data in Sophora are useful for elucidating its taxonomy and evolution. Fil: Stiefkens, Laura Beatriz. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Córdoba. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Físicas y Naturales. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal; Argentina Fil: Bernardello, Gabriel Luis Mario. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Córdoba. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal. Universidad Nacional de Córdoba. Facultad de Ciencias Exactas Físicas y Naturales. Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal; Argentina Fil: Anderson, Gregory J.. University of Connecticut; Estados Unidos

A seed probably of kowhai (Sophora microphylla), was found on a lake shore at Macquarie Island. The species does not occur on the island, and the seed may have been carried there by a bird that found it at sea. It shows how two consecutively acting long-distance dispersal agents may have facilitated colonization of oceanic islands by the Edwardsia group of Sophora species.

Germination and vigour of 24‐year‐old seeds collected from a single individual of a hybrid Sophora and stored at room temperature are compared with seeds from the 2001 season from the same tree. Germination of machine‐cleaned seed showed the hard seed character was still evident after 24 yr. Hand‐chipped seeds of the 2001 harvest gave 93% germination; 1977 seeds were 8%. Of the 2001 harvest there was little difference in germination between machine‐cleaned seeds and seeds removed by hand from pods. The majority of 1977 embryos were dead within their hard seed coat. Hand‐chipped and machine‐scarified seeds of both harvests were subjected to two accelerated ageing treatments designed to impose physiological stress. Germination of 1977 seeds was suppressed to zero but 2001 seeds were minimally affected. Tetrazolium tests for viability showed that viability was lost from most 1977 seeds. The loss in germinability and viability of the 1977 seeds was accompanied by a loss in vigour of remaining viable ...

Germination of Sophora seeds 24–40 years old from New Zealand (8 species), Chile (2 species), Lord Howe Island (1 species), and Hawai'i (1 species), and of fresh seed from trees established using seeds from the same seed lots, was assessed. Germination was rapid for most seed lots, with, on average, fresh seed having high germination (77–94%) and stored seed low germination (0–40%). Exceptions to this were old S. chrysophylla seed, which had unusually high germination (84%), and fresh S. longicarinata seed, which had unusually low germination (24%). The results provide further support for the role of long‐distance oceanic dispersal for the distribution of Sophora sect. Edwardsia around the Southern Hemisphere, and also suggest that long‐term seed storage could be used for the ex situ management of Sophora populations. The results also highlight some intriguing ecological correlates of germination that warrant further study.

A taxonomic treatment is provided for the Sophora microphylla complex in New Zealand. Sophora microphyllu sens. str. is endemic to New Zealand, and includes those plants with a distinct divaricating and/or strongly flexuose juvenile Phase, orange‐brown to Yellow‐brown Juvenile stems, and distant leaflets. S. chathamica is reinstated at species rank, S.fulvida is a new combination provided for the taxon previously known as S. microphylla Var. fulvida, and S. godleyi and S. molloyi are described as new species. S. chathamica, S. fulvida, S. godleyi and S. molloyi lack a divaricating and/or strongly flexuose juvenile phase and are each distinguished by a number of leaf characters. S. fulvida and S. godleyi have distinctive leaf hairs. S. chathamica is a predominantly coastal species in Northland, Auckland, Waikato, Wellington, and the Chatham Islands, S.fulvida occurs in Northland and North Auckland on volcanic rock outcrops S. godleyi Occurs on calcareous mudstone and sandstone in eastem Taranaki K...

The earliest available legitimate name for the Chilean tree legume pelu is Sophora cassioides; this is reinstated and a type specimen selected from the herbarium of F. Philippi. Pelu has previously been known as S. rnicrophylla, a name now considered to belong to a New Zealand endemic, and also as S. macnabiana and S. rnicrophylla subsp. macnabiana. Type material of Edwardsia macnabiana, the basionym of S. macnabiana and S. rnicrophylla subsp. macnabiana, has not been found in the Robert Graham herbarium and there is insufficient information in the protologue to allow the selection of a suitable neotype. The name E. macnabiana, and its nomenclatural synonyms, are therefore abandoned. It is also shown that the combination Sophora macnabiana, which has been attributed to Skottsberg, is not validly published.

Sophora longicarinata is reinstated at species rank, having recently been placed as a variety of S. microphylla. Sophora longicarinata is recognised by a suite of characters, including its lack of a juvenile growth phase, its shrubby, slender growth habit, sometimes producing several main stems from below ground level, and often suckering, its small, dark green, and numerous leaflets, and often twisted pedicels and flowers that are inverted in bud. Sophora longicarinata is restricted to marble and other limestone areas in northern Nelson and western Marlborough, is sparsely distributed, has few plants at each locality, and is considered to be a local endemic. A lectotype for S. microphylla is selected from the Banks and Solander herbarium at the Natural History Museum, London.

Morphometric parameters that have been used previously to define divaricates are not useful for the genus Sophora. In measurements of forest‐grown material, only node‐angles effectively distinguished between the arborescent S. tetraptera and the divaricating species S. prostrata and S. microphylla. We examined the developmental basis for the generation of divaricating architecture in Sophora species by following growth of potted material over one year. The divaricating form was characterised by a twice‐yearly production of new branches; sylleptic outgrowth in the spring, and proleptic outgrowth towards late summer. Branches arose predominantly from the proximal node. By contrast, the arborescent species had only a single growth period, and proleptic branches were produced from more distal nodes. In all three species, growth was most extensive in the uppermost regions of the canopy. Developmental processes may be better descriptors of divarication than shoot dimensions.

Possible relationships between cytokinins and juvenile form of Sophora species were investigated. Exogenous applications of 6-benzylaminopurine (6-BAP) to seedling S. microphylla resulted in a more divaricating appearance. Treated plants had more outgrown branches, wider branch angles, and narrower node angles than control plants. 6-BAP at 50 μmol/1 concentration was more effective in promoting this change than at a concentration of 150 μmol/1. The form of S. prostrata was not altered by exogenous application of cytokinin. Endogenous levels of storage and active cytokinins were assayed in pot-grown material, using high performance liquid chromatography and radioimmunoassay. Compounds with retention times and antibody specificity typical of known cytokinins in other species, were detected in S. microphylla, S. prostrata, and S. tetraptera. The recovery rates were low (1.5-18%) and results are difficult to interpret because of large amounts of an unknown cytokinin. However, it appears that the rati...

Wood anatomy of Sophora prostrata Buchanan, S. tetraptera J.S. Mill., and S. microphylla Aiton indigenous to New Zealand is described. Vessels are usually arranged in dendritic and oblique patterns, but in some narrow growth rings such patterns are absent. Several types of fusiform parenchyma cell and parenchyma strand are recorded. Forms intermediate between chambered non-storied parenchyma strands and chambered fibres are present. Disjunctive walls are present in axial and ray parenchyma cells. Only a few minor anatomical differences of limited diagnostic value occur among the individual New Zealand species of Sophora.

The history of “Cockaynes” in Sheffield is first outlined as well as aspects of Leonard Cockayne's early life, his family, and the sources of his private income. Cockayne's views on the evolution of divaricatingjuvenile forms and shrubs are summarised, and then examined with special reference to the three New Zealand species of Sophora. It is concluded that Sophora microphylla with ajuvenile divaricating form did not give rise by neoteny to the divaricating shrub S. prostrata, as Cockayne suggested, but that S. microphylla is derived from hybridisation between S. prostrata and S. tetraptera. It is also suggested that all species with divaricatingjuvenile forms arose by hybridisation between a divaricating shrub and a tree. The reasons why Cockayne favoured the inheritance of acquired characters are listed, and a restatement of the problems attempted in more modem terms. The selection pressures which could have led to divarication are also discussed, and it is considered that whereas some species ...

Seed of Sophora microphylla, S. prostrata, and S. tetraptera subsp. tetraptera from New Zealand, and of S. affinis, S. secundiflora, S. tomentosa, S. chrysophylla, and S. tetraptera subsp. howinsula from outside New Zealand, has been examined for the presence of galactomannan and other water-soluble polysaccharides. Only S. affinis seed contained galactomannan. Sophora secundiflora seed contained either starch or amyloid. All species except S. affinis contained water-soluble polysaccharides composed of galactose and arabinose. Results are considered in relation to Yakovlev's classification of Sophora and particularly to his inclusion of S. affinis and S. japonicum in a separate genus Styphnolobium.

Summary Sophora microphylla and S. prostrata are readily separated by the phenolic constituents of their seed coats, and both are readily distinguishable from S. tetraptera by the phenolic constituents of their leaves. On this basis Sophora populations in Chile and Gough Island are confiimed as S. microphylla. The probable New Zealand origin of these populations is discussed.