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Why you should read this article: • To enhance your knowledge of the structure and functions of the renal system • To recognise some of the renal conditions that may be seen in children and to understand how these are managed • To count towards revalidation as part of your 35 hours of CPD, or you may wish to write a reflective account (UK readers) • To contribute towards your professional development and local registration renewal requirements (non-UK readers) This article, the 15th and last in a series on the biological basis of child health, focuses on the renal system, in particular the kidneys. It provides an overview of their role, function, anatomy and physiology, and embryological development. The renal system has a crucial role in homeostasis, so renal function impairment can have wide-ranging and potentially serious consequences for a child's overall health. The article describes some of the common renal conditions seen in children and how these are managed. It explains how to interpret the results of renal function tests and urine sampling conducted to assess renal function and to investigate acute and chronic disease. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Why you should read this article: • To refresh your knowledge of innate and acquired immunity and the different types of immune response • To reflect on the importance of immunisations and how to explain it to parents • To count towards revalidation as part of your 35 hours of CPD, or you may wish to write a reflective account (UK readers) • To contribute towards your professional development and local registration renewal requirements (non-UK readers) This article, the 14th in a series on the biological basis of child health, focuses on the immune system. It provides an overview of pathogens to which the human body is susceptible, some of the milestones in the embryological development of the immune system, and some of the mechanisms of innate and acquired immunity. The article explains the importance of immunisations and provides examples of immune system dysfunctions and autoimmune conditions that children may experience. It is essential that children's nurses have an understanding of how the immune system develops, how it is structured and how it functions, since such knowledge will be relevant in the care of a range of conditions where nurses need to explain infection, inflammation and immune processes to children and parents. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Why you should read this article: • To enhance your knowledge of the structure and main functions of the skin • To understand the aetiology, manifestations and management of skin conditions commonly seen in children • To count towards revalidation as part of your 35 hours of CPD, or you may wish to write a reflective account (UK readers) • To contribute towards your professional development and local registration renewal requirements (non-UK readers) This article, the 13th in a series on the biological basis of child health, focuses on the skin. The skin is the largest organ in the body and covers its whole outer surface, protecting it from external threats, assisting in retaining body fluids, eliminating waste products and regulating temperature. The skin also has a crucial role in wound healing and vitamin D synthesis. Skin conditions in children are often distressing for children and parents, and may significantly affect their everyday lives. This article explains how the skin develops in utero, describes the structure and functions of the skin, and explores the aetiology, manifestations and management of skin conditions commonly seen in children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article explores the anatomy and pathophysiology of the endocrine system aimed to enhance the nurses' knowledge of this system, including its functioning and the conditions that young people are likely to experience when it malfunctions. Topics covered include the glands of the endocrine system and the hormones they secrete, the effects of hormones on normal functions of the human body, and the presentation and management of the most common endocrinopathies in children.

Why you should read this article: • To enhance your knowledge of the anatomy, physiology and development of the five senses • To increase your awareness of the common childhood conditions that can affect sensory function • To count towards revalidation as part of your 35 hours of CPD, or you may wish to write a reflective account (UK readers) • To contribute towards your professional development and local registration renewal requirements (non-UK readers) This article, the 11th in the Biological basis of child health series, focuses on the senses. There are five basic senses in humans: hearing, sight, touch, smell and taste. Several congenital and acquired conditions can affect the senses and may have significant negative effects on a child's development and ability to communicate with others. This article explores each of the five senses, discussing their anatomy, physiology and embryological development, as well as common conditions affecting sensory function in children. It aims to provide children's nurses with an understanding of the role of the senses in supporting children to make sense of the world, and how knowledge of this can be linked to clinical practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on the composition, functions and formation of blood and common blood disorders in children. It outlines the embryonic development of blood cells, occurrence of haemopoiesis and blood count values for different age groups. It explains signs and symptoms, causes and risks for and effects of low blood cell counts on children. Information is provided on blood groups, blood transfusions and disorders such as anaemia, sickle cell disease, clotting, haemophilia and blood cancer.

The article provides an overview of the embryological development of the liver and clinical features of childhood liver disease. It outlines characteristics of the liver's anatomy and explains functions of the liver including synthesis of the bile and coagulation factors and glucose generation. Information is provided on liver function tests, liver disease in children such as jaundice, biliary atresia, pruritus and hepatic encephalopathy, and developments in children's liver transplantation.

Why you should read this article: • To enhance your knowledge of the development of the gastrointestinal (GI) system • To understand the causes and management of various GI conditions that infants and children may present with • To count towards revalidation as part of your 35 hours of CPD, or you may wish to write a reflective account (UK readers) • To contribute towards your professional development and local registration renewal requirements (non-UK readers) This article is the eighth in a series on the biological basis of child health. It describes the embryological development of the gastrointestinal (GI) system and some of the structural anomalies that may arise during that time and later affect GI functioning. The article also discusses the functions of the GI tract – including ingestion, digestion, absorption and defecation – and explains how these relate to GI conditions seen in infants and children. GI conditions are common in childhood and some of these will be medical emergencies, so it is important that children's nurses have knowledge of the GI system and of the presentation and management of GI conditions in children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Why you should read this article: • To refresh your knowledge of the stages of growth and developmental milestones in childhood • To enable you to understand various conditions that can affect growth and development in children • To count towards revalidation as part of your 35 hours of CPD, or you may wish to write a reflective account (UK readers) • To contribute towards your professional development and local registration renewal requirements (non-UK readers) This article is the seventh in a series on the biological basis of child health. It describes early developmental milestones, stages of growth, puberty and the development of the reproductive system. It also outlines the methods used to assess growth and development, and describes conditions that affect growth and development in infants, children and young people. Understanding childhood growth and development is crucial for children's nurses, who need to be able to identify potential deviations from the norm, since these often reveal underlying conditions that require treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is the sixth in a series on the biological basis of child health. It provides an overview of the development of the skeletal system before and after birth, and outlines the potential congenital anomalies that may occur. The article explains the structure and function of the bones before describing the role of the joints, tendons and ligaments. It also outlines the presentation and management of some of the common orthopaedic conditions seen in infants and children, including fractures, osteogenesis imperfecta, scoliosis, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, developmental dysplasia of the hip and achondroplasia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AUTH Why you should read this article: • To enhance your knowledge of the development of the respiratory system before and after birth • To understand the causes and management of various common respiratory conditions that infants and children may present with • To count towards revalidation as part of your 35 hours of CPD, or you may wish to write a reflective account (UK readers) • To contribute towards your professional development and local registration renewal requirements (non-UK readers) This article is the fifth in a series on the biological basis of child health. It describes the development of the respiratory system, which starts relatively late in the embryo and continues after birth until the age of seven to eight years. It explains what the developing anatomy of the respiratory system in infants and children means in terms of the conditions that may occur and the precautions required when assessing them. The article provides an overview of the elements of respiratory assessment in infants and children and describes some respiratory conditions seen in these patient groups. It also discusses some of the changes in the care of children with respiratory conditions, which has increasingly moved from hospital into the community and become nurse-led, multidisciplinary and holistic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article is the first of a series that outlines the fundamental aspects of the biological basis of child health. Cells and genes are the basic units of life. Therefore, it is essential that nurses have knowledge of how cells function to understand normal physiology and pathophysiology, and how specific conditions are inherited. This article describes the components of the human cell, detailing their structure and function. It also discusses genetics, providing examples of inherited diseases including those caused by mutations that affect specific components of the cell. The aim is to provide children's nurses with an accessible introduction to cell biology and genetics linked to their clinical practice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

AUTH Why you should read this article: • To enhance your knowledge of the stages of prenatal development • To increase your awareness of the types, causes and detection of congenital anomalies • To count towards revalidation as part of your 35 hours of CPD, or you may wish to write a reflective account (UK readers) • To contribute towards your professional development and local registration renewal requirements (non-UK readers) This article is the second in a series called the biological basis of child health. It considers the period of development from fertilisation to birth, outlining the three stages of prenatal development – the germinal, embryonic and fetal stages. The article details how tissues and organs typically develop at each stage, and explains how and when deviations in development and congenital anomalies are likely to occur. It also describes some of the common congenital anomalies, their potential effects and their detection before or after birth. Information is also provided about the delivery of full-term infants, including the stages of labour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children and young people referred to paediatric endocrinology services present with a wide range of illnesses and disorders varying from minor to life-threatening conditions. This article introduces the role of the children's endocrine nurse in caring for children and families undergoing investigations that are frequently undertaken to identify specific problems associated with pituitary, adrenal and thyroid glands. Although children with endocrine problems may be cared for in specialist centres, they may also present, for other health reasons, in secondary and primary care. In schools some children may need teachers to administer emergency medication. There is a high incidence of children diagnosed with growth hormone deficiency and an even higher incidence of congenital hypothyroidism. These children would benefit from health professionals having a broader understanding of their conditions. This article - the third in the endocrinology nursing series - aims to disseminate information and educate colleagues in children's nursing to raise the profile of children with long-term endocrine conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A letter to the editor in response to a continuing professional development article by Kate Davies and Jacqueline Collin published in a previous issue, and a response from Davies and Collin to this letter are presented.