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We aimed to investigate the eating frequency (EF) in children over age, and examined the influence of country, sex, feeding mode and weight status on EF. We used the dietary data of the Childhood Obesity Project, which comprised European children from five countries. Dietary data of 3-days weighed and estimated records were available monthly from 1 to 9 and at 12-, 24-, 36-, 48-, 60-, 72- and 96-months old. Generalized additive mixed effects models were used to estimate EF trajectories with EF as outcome and applying age splines. Additionally, the models were further adjusted for country, feeding mode, sex or weight status. Data from 1244 children were analysed. EF was highest at 1 month with on average 7.3 ± 1.9 feeds per day, and fell to 5.1 ± 1.1 eating occasions at the age 96 months. Night feeding was similarly often than day feeding at 1 month but declined thereafter. Significant differences in EF were observed between countries (p < 0.05), with the highest EF in Poland, and between infant feeding modes, with a higher EF in breastfed than non-breastfed infants (p < 0.05). Sex and body weight were not associated with EF. Despite the importance of EF towards total energy intake, no association with weight status was found.

High protein intake has been associated with kidney hypertrophy, which is usually reversible; however, when it occurs early in life, it could lead to cell programming with a long-lasting effect. This study aimed to assess whether higher protein ingestion early in life has a persistent effect on kidney volume at 11 years of age, as well as its influence on blood pressure. This is a secondary analysis of a randomized control trial that compared the growth of infants fed with a higher-protein formula versus those fed with a lower-protein formula, with a control group of breastfed infants. Renal ultrasound and anthropometric measurements were assessed at 6 months and 11 years of age. At 11 years, urinary protein, albumin and creatinine, and blood pressure were measured in 232 children. Feeding with a higher-protein formula was associated with a larger kidney volume (β = 8.71, 95%CI 0.09–17.33, p = 0.048) and higher systolic blood pressure (β = 3.43, 95%CI 0.78–6.08, p = 0.011) at 11 years of age. Microalbuminuria was detected in 7% of the patients, with no differences among groups (p = 0.56). The effect of increased protein ingestion early in life may condition kidney volume and blood pressure in later childhood.

Meal timing is suggested to influence the obesity risk in children. Our aim was to analyse the effect of energy and nutrient distributions at eating occasions (EO), including breakfast, lunch, supper, and snacks, on the BMI z-score (zBMI) during childhood in 729 healthy children. BMI and three-day dietary protocols were obtained at 3, 4, 5, 6, and 8 years of age, and dietary data were analysed as the percentage of the mean total energy intake (TEI; %E). Intakes at EOs were transformed via an isometric log–ratio transformation and added as exposure variables to linear mixed-effects models. Stratified analyses by country and recategorization of EOs by adding intake from snacks to respective meals for further analyses were performed. The exclusion of subjects with less than three observations and the exclusion of subjects who skipped one EO or consumed 5% energy or less at one EO were examined in sensitivity analyses. Around 23% of the children were overweight at a given time point. Overweight and normal-weight children showed different distributions of dietary intakes over the day; overweight children consumed higher intakes at lunch and lower intakes of snacks. However, no significant effects of timing of EOs on zBMI were found in regression analyses.

Protein intake in early life influences metabolism, weight gain, and later obesity risk. As such, a better understanding of the effects of protein intake on the postprandial metabolism and its dynamics over time may elucidate underlying mechanisms. In a randomized crossover study, we observed fasted adults who consumed two isocaloric toddler milk formulas concentrated as meals of 480 kcal with 67 g of carbohydrates 30 g (HP) or 7 g (LP) protein, and 10 g or 20 g fat, respectively. Anthropometry and body plethysmography were assessed, and blood samples collected at baseline and over five hours. Time-specific concentrations, areas under concentration curves (AUC), and maximum values of metabolites were compared by paired t-tests to examine the effects of protein content of toddler milks on postprandial plasma concentrations of insulin, glucose, branched-chain amino acids (BCAA), urea and triglycerides. Twenty-seven men and women aged 26.7 ± 5.0 years (BMI: 22.2 ± 2.5 kg/m2) (mean ± SD) participated. BCAA AUC, and Cmax values were significantly higher with HP than LP (144,765 ± 21,221 vs. 97,089 ± 14,650 µmol min/L, p &lt, 0.001, 656 ± 120 vs. 407 ± 66 µmol/L, p &lt, 0.001), as were insulin AUC and Cmax values (6674 ± 3013 vs. 5600 ± 2423 µmol min/L, p = 0.005, 71 ± 37 vs. 55 ± 28 µmol /L, p = 0.001). Higher glucose, urea, and triglyceride concentrations occurred in the late postprandial phase (≥180 min) with HP. In conclusion, we noted that higher milk protein intake induces increased postprandial BCAA concentrations for at least 5 h and led to higher initial insulin secretion. Gluconeogenesis due to an influx of amino acids and their degradation after HP meal might explain the late effects of protein intake on glucose and insulin.

Background: We aimed at analysing the association between dietary fibre intake during childhood and cardiovascular health markers. Methods: We used observational longitudinal analysis and recorded diet using 3-day diaries at the ages of 3, 4, 5, 6, and 8 years in children from the EU Childhood Obesity Project Trial. At the age of 8, waist circumference, systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP) and biochemical analyses (lipoproteins, triglycerides and homeostasis model for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR)) were evaluated. Those parameters were combined into a cardiometabolic risk score through the sum of their internal z-scores. Results: Four-hundred children (51.8% girls) attended to the 8-year visit with a 3-day diary. Adjusted linear regression models showed that children who repeatedly stayed in the lowest tertile of fibre intake during childhood had higher HOMA-IR (p = 0.004), higher cardiometabolic risk score (p = 0.02) and a nonsignificant trend toward a higher SBP at 8 years. The higher the dietary intake of soluble fibre (from fruits and vegetables) at 8 years, the lower the HOMA-IR and the cardiometabolic risk score (p = 0.002, p = 0.004). SBP was directly associated with fibre from potatoes and inversely with fibre from nuts and pulses. Conclusion: A diet rich in dietary fibre from fruits, vegetables, pulses and nuts from early childhood was associated to a healthier cardiovascular profile, regardless of children&rsquo, s weight.

Commercial cereals are among the first complementary foods fed to infants in Germany and elsewhere. The purpose of this national survey is to describe the nutritional adequacy of commercial complementary cereals. A comprehensive, cross-sectional survey of cereal manufacturer websites (n = 15) was conducted from March to April 2019. Food labels were analyzed for iron, zinc, iodine, sodium, and sugar contents in commercial complementary cereals, and ingredient lists were evaluated for whole grains and added sugars. Preparation instructions were evaluated for the type of liquid recommended for reconstitution. Among 164 commercial complementary cereals, few contain iron (n = 43, 26%), zinc (n = 23, 14%) or iodine (n = 43, 26%). Sodium contents fall within EU thresholds. Most cereals were single grain, containing only wheat (n = 54), with half of the products (n = 86, 52%) containing whole grains. The average carbohydrate content of dry cereals is 69 g/100 g &plusmn, 9 g of which 14 &plusmn, 15 g is sugar. Preparation instructions for breakfast porridges and cereals recommend formula or toddler milk, while few recommend human milk (n = 13, 18%). Few commercial complementary cereals contain appreciable amounts (at least 15% of daily reference values) of zinc, iron, or iodine. A quarter of cereal carbohydrates are sugar and one-third of the products contain added sugars. Future directives should stipulate minimum micronutrient levels, strictly regulate sugar contents, and include human milk among preparation instructions.