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Objective: To determine the effectiveness of cervical medial branch thermal radiofrequency neurotomy in the treatment of neck pain or cervicogenic headache based on different selection criteria., Design: Comprehensive systematic review., Methods: A comprehensive literature search was conducted, and the authors screened and evaluated the studies. The Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation system was used to assess all eligible studies., Outcome Measures: The primary outcome measure assessed was the success rate of the procedure, defined by varying degrees of pain relief following neurotomy. Data are stratified by number of diagnostic blocks and degree of pain relief., Results: Results varied by selection criteria, which included triple placebo-controlled medial branch blocks, dual comparative medial branch blocks, single medial branch blocks, intra-articular blocks, physical examination findings, and symptoms alone. Outcome data showed a greater degree of pain relief more often when patients were selected by triple placebo-controlled medial branch blocks or dual comparative medial branch blocks, producing 100% relief of the index pain. The degree of pain relief was similar when triple or dual comparative blocks were used., Conclusions: Higher degrees of relief from cervical medial branch thermal radiofrequency neurotomy are more often achieved, to a statistically significant extent, if patients are selected on the basis of complete relief of index pain following comparative diagnostic blocks. If selected based on lesser degrees of relief, patients are less likely to obtain complete relief., (© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Academy of Pain Medicine. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Objective: To determine the risks of continuing or ceasing anticoagulant or antiplatelet medications prior to image-guided procedures for spine pain., Design: Systematic review of the literature with comprehensive analysis of the published data., Interventions: Following a search of the literature for studies pertaining to spine pain interventions in patients on anticoagulant medication, seven reviewers appraised the studies identified and assessed the quality of evidence presented., Outcome Measures: Evidence was sought regarding risks associated with either continuing or ceasing anticoagulant and antiplatelet medication in patients having image-guided interventional spine procedures. The evidence was evaluated in accordance with the Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation system., Results: From a source of 120 potentially relevant articles, 14 provided applicable evidence. Procedures involving interlaminar access carry a nonzero risk of hemorrhagic complications, regardless of whether anticoagulants are ceased or continued. For other procedures, hemorrhagic complications have not been reported, and case series indicate that they are safe when performed in patients who continue anticoagulants. Three articles reported the adverse effects of ceasing anticoagulants, with serious consequences, including death., Conclusions: Other than for interlaminar procedures, the evidence does not support the view that anticoagulant and antiplatelet medication must be ceased before image-guided spine pain procedures. Meanwhile, the evidence shows that ceasing anticoagulants carries a risk of serious consequences, including death. Guidelines on the use of anticoagulants should reflect these opposing bodies of evidence.

Objective: To determine the effectiveness and risks of fluoroscopically-guided cervical medial branch thermal radiofrequency neurotomy (CMBTRFN) for treating chronic neck pain of zygapophysial joint origin., Design: Systematic review of the literature with comprehensive analysis of the published data., Interventions: Four reviewers formally trained in evidence-based medicine searched the literature on CMBTRFN. Each assessed the methodologies of studies found and appraised the quality of evidence presented., Outcome Measures: The primary outcomes assessed were 100% relief of pain 6 and 12 months after treatment. Other outcomes were noted if reported. The evidence was evaluated in accordance with the Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) system., Results: The searches yielded eight primary publications on the effectiveness of the procedure. The evidence shows a majority of patients were pain free at 6 months and over a third were pain free at 1 year. The number needed to treat for complete pain relief at 6 months is 2. The evidence of effectiveness is of high quality according to the GRADE system. Twelve papers were found reporting unwanted effects, most of which are minor and temporary. No serious complications have ever been reported from procedures performed according to the published guidelines. The evidence of risks is of low quality according to the GRADE system., Conclusions: If performed as described in the International Spine Intervention Society Guidelines, fluoroscopically-guided CMBTRFN is effective for abolishing zygapophysial joint pain and carries only minor risks., (© 2015 American Academy of Pain Medicine. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Objective: To assess the evidence on the validity of sacral lateral branch blocks and the effectiveness of sacral lateral branch thermal radiofrequency neurotomy in managing sacroiliac complex pain., Design: Systematic review with comprehensive analysis of all published data., Interventions: Six reviewers searched the literature on sacral lateral branch interventions. Each assessed the methodologies of studies found and the quality of the evidence presented., Outcome Measures: The outcomes assessed were diagnostic validity and effectiveness of treatment for sacroiliac complex pain. The evidence found was appraised in accordance with the Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) system of evaluating scientific evidence., Results: The searches yielded two primary publications on sacral lateral branch blocks and 15 studies of the effectiveness of sacral lateral branch thermal radiofrequency neurotomy. One study showed multisite, multidepth sacral lateral branch blocks can anesthetize the posterior sacroiliac ligaments. Therapeutic studies show sacral lateral branch thermal radiofrequency neurotomy can relieve sacroiliac complex pain to some extent. The evidence of the validity of these blocks and the effectiveness of this treatment were rated as moderate in accordance with the GRADE system., Conclusions: The literature on sacral lateral branch interventions is sparse. One study demonstrates the face validity of multisite, multidepth sacral lateral branch blocks for diagnosis of posterior sacroiliac complex pain. Some evidence of moderate quality exists on therapeutic procedures, but it is insufficient to determine the indications and effectiveness of sacral lateral branch thermal radiofrequency neurotomy, and more research is required., (Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Objective: To determine the effectiveness and risks of fluoroscopically guided cervical transforaminal injection of corticosteroids in the treatment of radicular pain., Design: Systematic review of the literature with comprehensive analysis of the published data., Interventions: Three reviewers with formal training in evidence-based medicine searched the literature on fluoroscopically guided cervical transforaminal injection of steroids (CTFIS). Each reviewer independently assessed the methodology of studies found and appraised the quality of the evidence presented., Outcome Measures: The primary outcome assessed was relief of radicular pain. Other outcomes such as reduction in surgery rate and complications were noted if reported. The evidence on each outcome was appraised in accordance with the Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) system of evaluating evidence., Results: The searches yielded 16 primary publications on effectiveness. Available evidence, derived mainly from observational studies, suggests that approximately 50% of patients experience 50% relief of radicular pain for at least 4 weeks after CTFIS, and the intervention may have surgery-sparing effects. The literature also contains 21 articles with primary reports of serious complications, including 13 deaths and many catastrophic neurological injuries. The evidence of pain-relieving effects, of surgery-sparing effects, and of risks of CTFIS were all rated as of very low quality according to the GRADE system., Conclusions: In patients with cervical radicular pain, fluoroscopically guided CTFIS may be effective in easing pain and reducing need for surgery. However, the evidence of effectiveness is of very low quality, and the benefits of the procedure are compromised by the risks of serious complications., (Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Objective: To determine the effectiveness of lumbar transforaminal injection of steroids in the treatment of radicular pain., Design: Comprehensive review of the literature with systematic analysis of all published data., Interventions: Four reviewers independently assessed 39 publications on the effectiveness of lumbar transforaminal injection of steroids. Each reviewer determined if a publication provided any valid information on effectiveness. Assessments were compared, and the data of each publication were evaluated in terms of the rigor with which they were produced and the evidence they provided of effectiveness., Outcome Measures: The primary outcome sought was the success rate for relief of pain. Improvement in secondary outcomes was noted if reported., Results: For miscellaneous conditions, the available evidence is limited and is neither compelling nor conclusive. For disc herniation, the evidence is sufficiently abundant to show that lumbar transforaminal injection of steroids is not universally effective but, nevertheless, benefits a substantial proportion of patients, and is not a placebo. Success rates are higher in patients with contained herniations that cause only low-grade compression of the nerve., Conclusion: In a substantial proportion of patients with lumbar radicular pain caused by contained disc herniations, lumbar transforaminal injection of corticosteroids is effective in reducing pain, restoring function, reducing the need for other health care, and avoiding surgery. The evidence supporting this conclusion was revealed by comprehensive review of all published data and found to be much more compelling than it would have been if the literature review had been of the limited scope of a traditional "systematic review" of randomized, controlled trials only., (Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)