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Bats are a highly diversified order of mammals found all over the world; however, their population size and distribution are decreasing rapidly in Europe nowadays. The study of ancient bat populations by means of their fossil record is a valuable source of contextual information for modern bat conservation studies. This paper is a comprehensive review of published bat records in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands through Quaternary times, representing the first attempt to update and standardize the knowledge of chiropters in southwestern Europe during this time period. The main goal is to identify changes in bat assemblages that might be correlatable to palaeoclimate and palaeoenvironmental changes. Our data show that the Quaternary record of bats in the area is fragmentary and strongly dependent on the presence of karstic cavities. Thus, a strong preservation bias towards colonial cave-dwelling bats exists, and species with alternative ecological requirements are under-represented. Nevertheless, this work reveals that most of the bats inhabiting the area today were already present in the region from at least the Middle Pleistocene. Interestingly, we observe a frequent association between certain cave-dwelling bats (i.e., Rhinolophus ferrumequinum , Miniopterus schreibersii , Myotis myotis and M. blythii) that is still observed in many caves today; this reflects a stable ecology that has remained undisturbed despite past climatic changes. Within the well-documented periods at the end of the Late Pleistocene and the Holocene, a reduction in some common components of Quaternary assemblages (Rhinolophus species and M. schreibersii) is observed, coinciding with the Late Glacial Maximum and the Northgrippian Neoglacial (a cooling event in the Holocene). Finally, the Balearic record shows interesting palaeobiogeographical characteristics, including some eastern taxa absent in the Iberian Peninsula (Rhinolophus variabilis and R. cf. blasii) as well as an unusual abundance of Rhinolophus hipposideros. • Most extant bats in the Iberian Peninsula were already present there ca. 600 ka. • A strong bias towards colonial, cave bats counting exists within the fossil record. • Three Mediterranean cave bats associate stably despite Quaternary climate shifts. • The Last Glacial Maximum and the Northgrippian Neoglacial events left a mark. • Two oriental taxa and higher reports on Rhinolophus for the Balearic fossil bats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Late Pliocene fossil locality of Las Higueruelas (central Spain) has been known for many decades; however, in this paper, we describe the fauna of small-sized vertebrates (fish, amphibians, squamate reptiles, and rodents) for the first time based on pre-existing collections in the Museo Provincial de Ciudad Real. In addition to updating the taxonomical nomenclature of previously-published faunal lists, we also report the new occurrences of four fish taxa, a lizard (Lacertidae indet.), and several snakes (Malpolon gr. monspessulanus-mlynarskii , cf. Zamenis scalaris , and a large-sized indetermined viperid, probably from the Oriental vipers group or genus Daboia). The only rodent is identified as Stephanomys minor. Overall this assemblage indicates the predominance of open, dry environments and shrubby vegetation close to more grassy and riparian woodland under warm (15.1 ± 1.8 °C) and semi-arid (556 ± 40 mm) conditions. There was 4-month period of summer aridity similar to a modern Mediterranean climate. Most of the aquatic taxa (Pleurodeles , Pelophylax , and Natrix) were able to tolerate brackish environments, and the amphibians suggest the presence of deep and stable water bodies, with a long hydroperiod and aquatic vegetation, necessary for reproduction. Las Higueruelas is confirmed as being assigned to subchron 2An.1r (3.116–3.032 Ma) like the Camp dels Ninots Konservat-Lagerstätten (Girona, Spain). Palaeoclimate reconstruction for both localities is consistent with the later stages of the mid-Piacenzian Warm Period. Palaeontological comparison between the two sites may support either a small difference in age, or most probably, varied climate zonations within the Iberian Peninsula, with a north-eastern area allowing a local survival of Early Pliocene taxa that are absent from Las Higueruelas. [Display omitted] • The small vertebrates from Las Higueruelas (Spain) are described for the first time. • Fish, herpetofauna, and rodent represent up to 18 different taxa. • Stephanomys minor and palaeomagnetism constrain to the cron 2An.1r (3.03–3.11 Ma). • Predominance of open environments under temperate and dry climate conditions. • Central Spain does not seem to allow local survival of early Pliocene taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]