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Background: It is unknown which factors are associated with chest radiograph (CXR) and antibiotic use for suspected community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in children. We evaluated factors associated with CXR and antibiotic preferences among clinicians for children with suspected CAP using case scenarios generated through artificial intelligence (AI)., Methods: We performed a survey of general pediatric, pediatric emergency medicine, and emergency medicine attending physicians employed by a private physician contractor. Respondents were given 5 unique, AI-generated case scenarios. We used generalized estimating equations to identify factors associated with CXR and antibiotic use. We evaluated the cluster-weighted correlation between clinician suspicion and clinical prediction model risk estimates for CAP using 2 predictive models., Results: A total of 172 respondents provided responses to 839 scenarios. Factors associated with CXR acquisition (OR, [95% CI]) included presence of crackles (4.17 [2.19, 7.95]), prior pneumonia (2.38 [1.32, 4.20]), chest pain (1.90 [1.18, 3.05]) and fever (1.82 [1.32, 2.52]). The decision to use antibiotics before knowledge of CXR results included past hospitalization for pneumonia (4.24 [1.88, 9.57]), focal decreased breath sounds (3.86 [1.98, 7.52]), and crackles (3.45 [2.15, 5.53]). After revealing CXR results to clinicians, these results were the sole predictor associated with antibiotic decision-making. Suspicion for CAP correlated with one of 2 prediction models for CAP (Spearman's rho = 0.25). Factors associated with a greater suspicion of pneumonia included prior pneumonia, duration of illness, worsening course of illness, shortness of breath, vomiting, decreased oral intake or urinary output, respiratory distress, head nodding, focal decreased breath sounds, focal rhonchi, fever, and crackles, and lower pulse oximetry., Conclusions: Ordering preferences for CXRs demonstrated similarities and differences with evidence-based risk models for CAP. Clinicians relied heavily on CXR findings to guide antibiotic ordering. These findings can be used within decision support systems to promote evidence-based management practices for pediatric CAP., Competing Interests: Disclosure: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2024 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To determine the association between adjunct corticosteroid therapy and quality of life (QoL) outcomes in children with signs and symptoms of lower respiratory tract infection and clinical suspicion for community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in the emergency department (ED)., Methods: Secondary analysis from a prospective cohort study of children aged 3 months to 18 years with signs and symptoms of LRTI and a chest radiograph for suspected CAP in the ED, excluding children with recent (within 14 days) systemic corticosteroid use. The primary exposure was receipt of corticosteroids during the ED visit. Outcomes were QoL measures and unplanned visits. Multivariable regression was used to evaluate the association between corticosteroid therapy and outcomes., Results: Of 898 children, 162 (18%) received corticosteroids. Children who received corticosteroids were more frequently boys (62%), Black (45%), had history of asthma (58%), previous pneumonia (16%), presence of wheeze (74%), and more severe illness at presentation (6%). Ninety-six percent were treated for asthma as defined by report of asthma or receipt of ß-agonist in the ED. Receipt of corticosteroids was not associated with QoL measures: days of activity missed (adjusted incident rate ratio [aIRR], 0.84; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.63-1.11) and days of work missed (aIRR, 0.88; 95% CI, 0.60-1.27). There was a statistically significant interaction between age (>2 years) and corticosteroids receipt; the patients had fewer days of activity missed (aIRR, 0.62; 95% CI, 0.46-0.83), with no effect on children 2 years or younger (aIRR, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.54-1.27). Corticosteroid treatment was not associated with unplanned visit (odds ratio, 1.37; 95% CI, 0.69-2.75)., Conclusions: In this cohort of children with suspected CAP, receipt of corticosteroids was associated with asthma history and was not associated with missed days of activity or work, except in a subset of children aged older than 2 years., Competing Interests: Disclosure: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To evaluate the role of virus detection on disease severity among children presenting to the emergency department (ED) with suspected community-acquired pneumonia (CAP)., Methods: We performed a single-center prospective study of children presenting to a pediatric ED with signs and symptoms of a lower respiratory tract infection and who had a chest radiograph performed for suspected CAP. We included patients who had virus testing, with results classified as negative for virus, human rhinovirus, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), influenza, and other viruses. We evaluated the association between virus detection and disease severity using a 4-tiered measure of disease severity based on clinical outcomes, ranging from mild ( discharged from the ED) to severe (receipt of positive-pressure ventilation, vasopressors, thoracostomy tube placement, or extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, intensive care unit admission, diagnosis of severe sepsis or septic shock, or death) in models adjusted for age, procalcitonin, C-reactive protein, radiologist interpretation of the chest radiograph, presence of wheeze, fever, and provision of antibiotics., Results: Five hundred seventy-three patients were enrolled in the parent study, of whom viruses were detected in 344 (60%), including 159 (28%) human rhinovirus, 114 (20%) RSV, and 34 (6%) with influenza. In multivariable models, viral infections were associated with increasing disease severity, with the greatest effect noted with RSV (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 2.50; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.30-4.81) followed by rhinovirus (aOR, 2.18; 95% CI, 1.27-3.76). Viral detection was not associated with increased severity among patients with radiographic pneumonia (n = 223; OR, 1.82; 95% CI, 0.87-3.87) but was associated with severity among patients without radiographic pneumonia (n = 141; OR, 2.51; 95% CI, 1.40-4.59)., Conclusions: The detection of a virus in the nasopharynx was associated with more severe disease compared with no virus; this finding persisted after adjustment for age, biomarkers, and radiographic findings. Viral testing may assist with risk stratification of patients with lower respiratory tract infections., Competing Interests: Disclosure: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2023 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: This study aims to update the Diagnosis Grouping System (DGS) for International Classification of Disease, Tenth Revision ( ICD-10 ) codes for ongoing use. The DGS was developed in 2010 using ICD-9 codes with 21 major groups and 27 subgroups to facilitate research on pediatric patients presenting to emergency departments and required updated classification for more recent ICD codes., Methods: All emergency department discharges available in the Pediatric Emergency Care Applied Research Network (PECARN) database for 2016 were included to identify ICD-10 codes. These codes were then mapped onto the DGS codes originally derived from ICD-9 . We used ICD-10 codes from the PECARN database from 2017 to 2019 to confirm validity., Results: The DGS was updated with ICD-10 codes based on 2016 PECARN data, and this updated DGS was successfully applied to 6,853,479 (97.3%) of all codes from 2017 to 2019., Discussion: Using ICD-10 codes from the PECARN Registry, the DGS was updated to reflect ICD-10 codes to facilitate ongoing research., (Copyright © 2022 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Although 72-hour return visits are a frequently reported metric for pediatric patients discharged from the emergency department (ED), the basis for this metric is not established. Our objective was to statistically derive a cutoff time point for the characterization of pediatric return visits., Methods: We performed a retrospective cohort study using data of patients discharged from any of 44 pediatric EDs. We selected the first encounter per patient from January 1 to December 31, 2019, as the index encounter and included the first return visit within 30 days. We constructed a cumulative hazard curve to characterize the timing of return visits and constructed a multivariable adaptive regression spline model to identify a hinge point in return visit presentations. We identified the association between admission for early return visits and admission for late return visits using generalized linear mixed modeling., Results: Of 1,986,778 index ED discharges, 193,605 (9.7%) ED return visits were included. A double-exponential decay model demonstrated superior fit compared with a single exponential model ( P < 0.0001). Multivariable adaptive regression spline modeling identified a hinge at 7 days. When comparing proportions of return visits leading to hospitalization between early (23.8%) and late (15.1%) return visits, early visits (≤7 days) had higher adjusted odds of hospital admission (adjusted odds ratio, 1.73; 95% confidence interval, 1.69-1.77) relative to late return visits (>7 days). Findings were similar in sensitivity analyses within age subgroups, Census region, and in which the diagnosis (using the Diagnosis and Grouping System) was the same between the index and return visit. Among return visits that occurred within 7 days of the index visit, 46.3% had the same diagnosis grouping in both visits., Conclusions: An empirically derived 7-day cutoff may be more appropriate for characterization of pediatric return visits to the ED. Encounters after this period had lower adjusted odds of admission., Competing Interests: Disclosure: All authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: This study aimed to compare statewide emergency medical services protocols for the management of pediatric respiratory distress., Methods: We performed a descriptive study of emergency medical services protocols for the management of pediatric respiratory distress in the United States, excluding those without model or mandatory protocols. We compared medication recommendations for specific disease processes, including asthma, croup, epiglottitis, anaphylaxis, generalized respiratory distress, intubation, and drug assisted intubation., Results: Thirty-four state protocols were included. All had protocols to address the management of pediatric respiratory distress. There was high agreement in albuterol use for bronchospasm and epinephrine use in anaphylaxis. Epinephrine was recommended in all anaphylaxis protocols, 27 croup protocols (79%), and 3 epiglottitis protocols (9%). Six states (18%) called for albuterol in patients with generalized respiratory distress. Steroid recommendations and indications had variance among states; 26 states (76%) allowed steroid use in patients with asthma, 19 states (56%) recommended steroid use in anaphylaxis, and 11 (32%) recommended steroid use in croup protocols. The route for steroid administration also varied among protocols. Five states (15%) allowed continuous positive airway pressure application in pediatric patients, whereas endotracheal intubation and rapid sequence intubations had varying requirements as well as recommendations for use. Twelve (35%) listed impending or current respiratory failure as an indication, whereas other states had specific markers, such as Glasgow Coma Scale or oxygen saturation, as indications., Conclusions: All included states had specific recommendations for the management of pediatric respiratory distress. There was consistency in recommendations for albuterol use for wheezing and epinephrine use for anaphylaxis. However, there was wide variability in other uses for epinephrine, steroid administration, continuous positive airway pressure use, and specific treatments for croup and epiglottitis. The findings of this study provide a base for important future evidence-based protocol developments and changes in prehospital pediatric respiratory distress treatment., Competing Interests: Disclosure: The authors declare no conflicts of interest., (Copyright © 2022 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: This study aimed to evaluate trends in pediatric emergency department (ED) 72-hour return visits and factors associated with return visits., Methods: We performed a cross-sectional study from 2002 to 2018 using the National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey, a complex survey of nonfederal US ED encounters. Patients 18 years or older were excluded. Our outcome of interest was 72-hour return ED encounter. We assessed changes in proportions of return visits over time using the Spearman rank-correlation test. We performed survey-weighted univariable and multivariable logistic regressions to identify factors associated with 72-hour return visit status., Results: A total of 501 million (95% confidence interval [CI], 452-551 million) pediatric survey-weighted ED encounters occurred during the 17-year study period, of which 14,353,697 (3.2%; 95% CI, 2.7%-3.7%) represented 72-hour return visits. The proportion of pediatric ED return visits increased from 22.9 to 36.5 per 1000 pediatric encounters over the study period (ρ = 0.68, P < 0.01). Most return visits were of lower acuity (73.0%; 95% CI, 68.6%-11.5%), and 8.1% (95% CI, 6.3%-9.9%) of return visits were admitted to the hospital or transferred to a different facility. In multivariable analyses, older age, abnormal heart rate, and abnormal temperature had lower adjusted odds ratio (aOR) of 72-hour return visits compared with encounters not classified as return visit. Complaints of returning for test results, treatment, and diagnostic screening/administrative purposes were associated with a higher aOR of return visit. Admission/transfer (in comparison with discharge) had a higher odds of return visit status in univariable (odds ratio, 1.59; 95% CI, 1.24-2.04) and multivariable (aOR, 1.31; 95% CI, 1.03-1.68) analyses., Conclusions: The proportion of 72-hour US pediatric ED return visits is increasing over time. Return visit status was associated with admission/transfer, but otherwise with markers of lower patient acuity. These findings inform quality improvement efforts aimed at improving pediatric transition to outpatient care after an ED encounter., Competing Interests: Disclosure: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Background/objective: To describe the epidemiology of emergency department (ED) visits by pediatric patients transported from the out-of-hospital setting (ie, scene) by emergency medical services (EMS), and identify factors associated with EMS transport., Methods: We performed a cross-sectional study of ED visits from 2014 to 2017 utilizing a nationally representative probability sample survey of visits to US EDs. We included pediatric patients (<18 years old) and compared encounters transported from the scene by EMS to those who arrived to the ED by all other means. We performed multivariable logistic regression to identify factors associated with scene EMS transport., Results: Of 130.2 million pediatric ED encounters, 4.7 million (3.8%) arrived by EMS. Most patients were White (61.1%), non-Hispanic (77.5%), and publicly insured (52.2%). Multivariable analysis demonstrated associations with EMS transport: Black (vs White) race (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 1.48; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.16-1.89), ages 1 to younger than 5 years (aOR, 0.52; 95% CI, 0.37-0.72) and 5 to younger than 12 years (aOR, 0.56; 95% CI, 0.40-0.80) (vs adolescents), pediatric (aOR, 0.60; 95% CI, 0.42-0.85) and nonmetropolitan hospital status (aOR, 0.52; 95% CI, 0.35-0.78), blood testing (aOR, 2.34; 95% CI, 1.71-3.19), time to evaluation (31-60 minutes [aOR, 0.56; 95% CI, 0.39-0.80] and >60 minutes [aOR, 0.51; 95% CI, 0.33-0.77] compared with 0-30 minutes), admission (aOR, 3.20; 95% CI, 2.33-4.38), and trauma (1.80; 95% CI, 1.43-2.28)., Conclusions: Four percent of pediatric ED patients are transported to the ED by EMS from the scene. These patients receive a rapid and resource intense diagnostic evaluation, suggesting that higher acuity. Black patients, adolescents, and those with trauma were more likely to be transported by EMS., Competing Interests: Disclosure: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: The aims of the study were to estimate testing and treatment rates among pediatric low-acuity emergency department (ED) visits and to compare testing and treatment patterns at general and pediatric-specific EDs., Methods: We performed a cross-sectional study of triage level 4 or 5 pediatric visits from a complex survey of nonfederal US EDs from 2008 to 2017. We analyzed demographics, vital signs, disposition, testing, and treatment. We calculated proportions for each data element and used χ2 tests to determine differences between general and pediatric EDs., Results: There were an estimated 306.2 million pediatric visits with 129.1 million acuity level 4 or 5 visits (57.2%; 95% confidence interval, 55.4%-58.9%), with diagnostic testing performed in 47.1% and medications administered in 69.6% of the visits. Most low-acuity visits (82.0%) were to general EDs. Tests performed more frequently in general EDs compared with pediatric EDs included radiographs (25.8% vs 15.7%, P < 0.01), complete blood count (6.4% vs 3.9%, P < 0.01), electrolytes (11.6% vs 3.7%, P < 0.01), and glucose (2.0% vs 0.9%, P < 0.01). Ultrasound was used less frequently in general EDs (0.5 vs 0.7, P < 0.01). There were similar rates of intravenous fluid and overall medication administration and a higher proportion of patients receiving antibiotics in general EDs (28.7% vs 23.8%, P < 0.01)., Conclusions: More than half of pediatric visits to the ED are low acuity. Although general EDs relied on more imaging, blood testing and antibiotics, and pediatric EDs on ultrasound, overall resource utilization was high in this population across both ED types and can likely be reduced., Competing Interests: Disclosure: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2021 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: The objective of this study was to compare statewide prehospital protocols for the management of pediatric seizures., Methods: We performed a descriptive analysis comparing statewide protocols for emergency medical services management of pediatric seizures within the United States, excluding states for which no statewide protocol/model was available. We compared antiepileptic drugs (AEDs), routes and doses of administration, and differences in febrile seizure management., Results: Of 50 states, 34 had either statewide protocols or models and were included. All had a protocol for the management of seizures and provided specific recommendations for the management of pediatric seizures. Twelve states (35%) preferentially recommended midazolam over other benzodiazepines. Thirty-two (94%) of 34 allowed for use of midazolam, with variable use of other AEDs. All allowed for use of intramuscular AED. Twenty-six (77%) allowed for intranasal AED. Nine (27%) allowed emergency medical services to administer a patient's own abortive AED, and 6 (18%) allowed for use of a patient's vagal nerve stimulator, when present. There was a wide variability with respect to dosing ranges for medications. Thirty-two (94%) of 34 included blood glucose measurement within the protocol. Twenty-one protocols (62%) provided recommendations for febrile seizures, including recommending active/passive cooling (8/34, 24%) and antipyretic administration (9/34, 26%)., Conclusions: All statewide protocols carried specific guidelines for the prehospital management of pediatric seizures; however, there was wide variability with respect to specific AEDs, routes of administration, and drug dosages. In addition to broader availability of statewide guidance, areas of potential protocol improvement and research include AED dose optimization, reprioritization of blood glucose, and greater emphasis on intranasal or intramuscular medication dosing., Competing Interests: Disclosure: The authors declare no conflict of interest., (Copyright © 2020 Wolters Kluwer Health, Inc. All rights reserved.)

Neonatal herpes simplex virus infection (HSV) is rare in neonates, with an estimated global incidence of 10 per 100,000 live births. Neonatal HSV is challenging to diagnose due to often vague signs and symptoms. Untreated, the mortality of some HSV subtypes exceeds 80%. Overtesting and overtreatment can result in prolonged hospitalizations and expose neonates to medication toxicity. In contrast, prompt evaluation and use of empiric antiviral therapy before the results of definitive testing can improve outcomes for infants with HSV. A wide degree of practice variation exists with respect to testing and treatment for neonatal HSV, and more research is required to safely risk-stratify this population. This review presents the epidemiology, risk factors, presenting features, and emergency department management of neonatal HSV infection.

Purpose: Direct ophthalmoscopy may be difficult without pupillary dilation and patient cooperation. Nonmydriatic ocular fundus photography (NMOFP) has been shown to be easily and efficiently accomplished by medical providers and improve the detection of abnormalities in adult emergency department (ED) patients. Nonmydriatic ocular fundus photography for pediatric ED patients has not been studied. The purpose of this study was to assess the ease of use of the Digital Retinography System (DRS) camera for NMOFP in ED patients aged 5 to 12 years and the quality of retinal images obtained with the DRS., Methods: Retinal images were obtained with the DRS by a pediatric emergency medicine physician using a convenience sample of ED patients aged 5 to 12 years. Time to procedure completion, patient cooperation (Likert scale 1-5, with 5 being most cooperative), and satisfaction with the images (Likert scale 1-5, with 5 being completely satisfied) were recorded. Any satisfaction score less than 5 required the physician to describe a reason for dissatisfaction (brightness, field of view, focus). An ophthalmologist was consulted regarding any abnormal image. The accompanying parent completed a survey following the procedure. Estimated time to completion of the procedure and a rating of the overall comfort and cooperation of the child during the procedure (Likert scale 1-5) were recorded. A second pediatric emergency medicine physician reviewed all images and rated the level of satisfaction, reasons for dissatisfaction, and whether the images were normal. Descriptive statistics were used to analyze survey responses. A Mann-Whitney U test was used to compare continuous data for age groups 5 to 8 and 9 to 12 years. A Krippendorff α or κ coefficient was used to measure agreement between the physician obtaining the images and the secondary reviewer for image satisfaction and image abnormalities., Results: One hundred three patients were enrolled: 50 aged 5 to 8 years and 53 aged 9-12 years (mean, 9.1 [SD, 2.1] years). Five patients failed to cooperate, and no images were obtained. The mean length of time (LOT) to procedure completion was 1.8 (SD, 0.86) minutes. Overall, mean cooperation score was 4.4, and mean image satisfaction score was 4.6. One or more reasons for image dissatisfaction were given in 27 patients (imperfect focus most commonly). There was moderate agreement between the 2 physicians for image satisfaction (Krippendorff α coefficient = 0.48) and image abnormalities (κ coefficient = 0.38). Mean LOT did not differ between 5- to 8-year-olds and 9- to 12-year-olds (P = 0.23). Older patients had higher mean cooperation scores and image satisfaction scores (P < 0.001 and P = 0.04 respectively). Parental mean score for perceived LOT was 4.6 (5 = very short), 4.8 for patient comfort (5 = very comfortable), and 4.8 for patient cooperation (5 = very cooperative)., Conclusions: Our data suggest that NMOFP using the DRS camera is a rapid and easy method of obtaining high-quality images of the retina in pediatric ED patients.

We present a 4-week-old neonate with acute onset of bloody stools and abdominal distention. Point-of-care ultrasound performed in the emergency department allowed for rapid diagnosis of a large amount of free intra-abdominal fluid, which together with the physical findings, prompted emergent operative exploration revealing chylous ascites. Although no areas of active volvulus were identified intraoperatively, findings in the case were suggestive of small bowel volvulus and deemed as the most likely etiology for this patient's presentation. In this report, we review the relevant aspects of ultrasonography for ascites and discuss the diagnosis of chylous ascites.

Pericarditis is a rare presentation of thyrotoxicosis associated with Graves disease. This association has not been previously described in the pediatric literature. We report a 17-year-old male patient who presented with chest pain, dyspnea, and tachycardia. He was found to have diffuse ST-segment elevation consistent with pericarditis. At presentation, he was noted to have bilateral proptosis. Abnormal thyroid function studies and an elevated thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor antibody level confirmed the diagnosis of Graves thyrotoxicosis. The patient was treated with anti-inflammatory and antithyroid agents and improved in time. We discuss previously reported cases of Graves disease-associated pericarditis in adults, potential etiologies, and management strategies.

Necrotizing pneumonias occur infrequently in children but may be associated with significant morbidity. If not adequately treated, necrotizing pneumonia may lead to complications including bronchopleural fistula, empyema, respiratory failure, and septic shock. Staphylococcus aureus is the most commonly implicated agent, followed by Streptococcus pneumoniae. Antimicrobial treatment is the cornerstone of management, although surgical drainage may be required in some cases. We present the case of a 14-month-old child with fever and cough that persisted despite treatment with typical first-line oral antimicrobial therapy. An initial plain radiograph of the chest demonstrated lobar pneumonia. Ultimately, computed tomography of the chest revealed a cavitary lesion in the left upper lobe of the lung. We review the literature and describe the clinical presentation, diagnosis, microbiological etiology, and management of necrotizing pneumonia in children.