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Seasonal variation in leaf phenolic composition may be important for acclimation of plants to seasonal changes in their biotic and abiotic environment. For a realistic assessment of how plants respond to solar UV-B (280-315 nm) and UV-A (315-400 nm) radiation, seasonal variation in both environment and plant responses needs to be taken into account. This also has implications for studies concerning stratospheric ozone depletion and resulting increased UV-B radiation, as other environmental variables and/or plant phenology could interact with UV radiation. To elucidate this, we established a field experiment using plastic films attenuating different parts of the solar UV spectrum. The concentration of individual phenolic compounds was measured during one growing season in leaves of grey alder (Alnus incana) and white birch (Betula pubescens) trees. Our results showed changes in concentration of, e.g. hydrolyzable tannins in birch that suggest an effect of UV-A alone and e.g. chlorogenic acids in alder indicate a quadratic effect of UV-B irradiance and both linear and quadratic effect for UV-A in second-degree polynomial fits. Further, there was interaction between treatment and sampling time for some individual metabolites; hence, the UV response varied during the season. In addition to the UV effects, three temporal patterns emerged in the concentrations of particular groups of phenolics. Possible implications for both sampling methods and timing are discussed. Moreover, our results highlight differences in responses of the two tree species, which are taken to indicate differences in their ecological niche differentiation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the distribution of Frankia genotypes with respect to three altitudinal zones in the Sikkim Himalayas. The study was carried out for 90 Alnus nepalensis trees at nine different locations from three altitudes from the east and north districts of Sikkim, India. We used a PCR-based technique to amplify the internally transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the rrn operon using two primers specific for the distal part of 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA), ITS and proximal part of 23S rRNA genes of Frankia. The PCR products were digested with the restriction enzyme RsaI to generate amplified recombinant DNA restriction analysis (ARDRA) patterns. Frankia genotypes were categorized on the basis of 17 different ARDRA patterns. Nucleotide sequences of some representative amplicons were also obtained. Rhizosphere soil samples associated with the 90 trees were collected and analysed for eight different soil properties. In general, soil properties did not differ by site or altitude, and did not correlate with Frankia genotypes. Frankia community composition was strongly affected by altitude and to a lesser extent by site. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chromatographic, kinetic and regulatory properties of glutamine synthetase (GS) were investigated in root nodules of Alnus glutinosa L. (Gaertn) grown in a culture chamber. By DEAE Sephacel column chromatography and polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, a major form of the enzyme was identified. Molecular weight was about 360 000 for the native protein and 43 000 for the subunits. Optimum pH was about 7.3 and Km for glutamate and ATP were 0.9 mM and 0.5 mM respectively. By immunofluorescent techniques GS was localized in the inner cortical cells but not in vesicles of alder root nodules. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The occurrence and localization of enzymes involved in glycolysis, tricarboxylic acid cycle and glyoxylate cycle in root nodules of Alnus glutinosa (L.) Vill. and Hippophaë rhamnoides L. ssp. rhamnoides were studied. The following enzymes, catalyzing reversible steps in the glycolysis, were found in both the endophyte Frankia spp. and the plant cytosol of Alnus nodules: fructose‐1,6‐diphosphate aldolase, glyceralde‐hyde‐3‐phosphate dehydrogenase, phosphoglycerate kinase and enolase. The enzymes catalyzing irreversible steps in glycolysis, viz. hexokinase and pyruvate kinase, were detectable only in the plant cytosol. Similar results were obtained with nodule homogenates of Hippophaë. This indicates the absence of a complete glycolysis in the endophyte. Vesicle clusters of the nodule endophyte of Alnus contained various dehydrogenases of the tricarboxylic acid cycle and showed activity of glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase. Respiration studies showed that vesicle clusters take up oxygen when supplied with NAD, glutamate and malate together. No oxygen uptake was found when any of these compounds was omitted. Vesicle clusters from both Alnus and Hippophaë nodules showed no detectable activity of the glyoxylate cycle enzymes isocitrate lyase and malate synthase. Since these enzymes are known to be present in Frankia Avcll, when grown in a medium with Tween 80 as carbon source, it is suggested that the glyoxylate cycle enzymes are repressed in the root‐nodule symbioses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Birch (Betula verrucosa Ehrh.) and grey alder (Alnus incana Moench) seedlings were grown with varied relative addition rates of all nutrients, up to optimum for vegetative growth. The root medium was basically distilled water to which the nutrients, contained in stock solutions in fixed proportions, were added every second hour and in exponentially increased amounts for consumption during the subsequent period. The nutrient weight proportions previously found to be required in birch (100 N:65 K:13 P) were used in all treatments. However, the nutrient proportions required in grey alder were found to be somewhat different (100 N:50 K:18 P). The use of the required proportions in the additions was important for maintenance of maximum growth, efficient nutrient utilization, and low concentrations in the root medium. Luxury consumption and inefficiency occurred at high concentrations. The results show that the nutrient requirements are sufficiently defined, for different relative growth rates, by the nutrient proportions and the relative addition rate. No clear relationships were found between conductivity or concentration in the root medium and the addition rate, net uptake rate, nutrient status, or relative growth rate. The results are in good agreement with data from low concentration and depletion experiments reported in the literature, showing that non‐limited uptake rates occur down to very low concentrations. Thus, there is strong evidence that concentration has been incorrectly used when applied as the treatment variable for plant nutrition in plant science and cultivation practice. The dominant factors in sub‐optimum and optimum nutrition are the amounts of nutrients available per unit of time, the growth rate, and the nutrient proportions. At low concentration levels, physical factors such as stirring and flow rate of nutrient solution and boundary layer effects are decisive for the rates with which the nutrients become available to the roots. Therefore, at low levels, concentration alone cannot be used as the factor determining nutrient uptake rate. At high levels, concentration is effective as a supra‐optimum factor and increased internal percentage contents cause decreased uptake efficiency, thus counter‐acting the concentration effect. Nitrogen effects dominated the stress indications when the internal nitrogen percentage content decreased from optimum to the level of the treatments in the beginning of the experiments. Leaf deficiency symptoms disappeared and the root/shoot ratio change ceased when nitrogen status stabilized. Strong linear regressions were found between any two of the variables: relative addition rate of nutrients, relative growth rate, and nutrient status. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Actinomycetes from the genus Frankia are able to form symbiotic associations with more than 200 different species of woody angiosperms, so called actinorhizal plants. Many actinorhizal plants are infected via deformed root hairs. Factor(s) eliciting root hair deformation in actinorhizal symbioses have been found to be released into the culture medium, but the factor(s) has (have) not yet been characterized. In the present work, we describe the constitutive production of factor(s) by Frankia strain Ar13 causing root hair deformation on Alnus glutinosa. Deformation was detected after 4-5 h of incubation with both Frankia cultures and their cell-free culture filtrates. When culture filtrate was used, deformation was concentration dependent. A contact time of 2 min between culture filtrate and host roots was sufficient to induce subsequent root hair deformation. No root hair deformation on A. glutinosa could be detected with purified Nod factors from Rhizobium meliloti or R. legutninosarum biovar viciae. No correlation was found between Frankia strains belonging to different host specificity groups and their ability to deform root hairs on A. glutinosa. However, strains not able to deform root hairs on A. glutinosa were also unable to nodulate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presence and activity of the enzymes superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase were studied in Frankia in symbiosis with Alnus incana (L.) Moench. Analysis on native PAGE gels indicated that symbiotic Frankia contained an FeSOD and catalase. The activity of the enzymes was in the same range as reported for cultured Frankia. Attempts to characterize SOD by western blots with antisera from Escherichia coli and Azotobacter vinelandii did not give clear-cut results with the antibodies used. Alnus incana plants were grown with the root system in 5, 10, 21 or 40% O2 for up to 6 days. Nitrogenase activity, measured as ARA (acetylene reducing activity) dropped within 3 h when roots were exposed to low or high oxygen. At 40% O2 ARA was almost completely lost while at 5 and 10% O2 ARA decreased to 69 and 74% of the inital value, respectively. Nitrogenase activity recovered at all oxygen tensions. Recovery rates resembled the continuous increase in ARA in plants continuosly kept at 21% O2 and suggests that new vesicles with envelopes of appropriate thickness were formed. The ARA measurements confirm results from an earlier study where nitrogenase activity was measured as H2 evolution. There was a tendency for increased SOD and catalase activities in Frankia from root systems exposed to 40% O2 for 24 h but not earlier or later than this. When data from all experimental times were pooled. SOD activity increased significantly with increased oxygen tension whereas catalase activity decreased. Although ARA per plant varied with oxygen tension, there was no statistically significant correlation between ARA and SOD or between ARA and catalase. It seems that being linked to nitrogenase activity is only one role of SOD and catalase in this symbiotic Frankia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A true hemoglobin (Hb) was shown to be present in the root nodules of Alnus glutinosa L. After purification by gel filtration and ion exchange, the Hb formed a stable complex with oxygen. This oxygen complex could then be converted to carboxyhemoglobin by treatment with CO. Optical absorption spectra typical of Hb were observed. The molecular weight was estimated to be 15 100 by gel filtration, and 18 300 by sodium dodecyl sulfate‐polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The Hb was largely insoluble when the initial homogenization was done in the absence of a detergent. Under these conditions much of the Hb appears to be associated with clusters of Frankia, the nitrogen‐fixing actinomycete that infects plant cells within the nodules. The exact localization of the Hb in vivo is uncertain. The relatively low average concentration of Hb in Alnus nodules suggests that it is either confined to a relatively small fraction of total nodule volume, or has a function other than facilitation of O2 transport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Split-root cultured grey alder, Alnus incana (L.) Moench., was grown in sand in cuvettes with a continuous supply of nutrient solution. During the drought treatment for up to 9 days the supply of solution was withheld from one of the split-root halves. After 2–3 days of treatment, soil water became depleted and the unwatered root halves were at a constant drought stress, water potential (Ψnodules) = -1.1 to -1.6 MPa. Nitrogenase activity in the dry half decreased to about 70% of the initial value during the first 2–3 days and then stayed at this level. The water supply to the shoot from the wet root half was high and only a temporary slight decrease in photosynthesis and stomatal conductance was found in drought-stressed split-root plants. Labelling studies showed a reduced translocation of photoassimilates to the dry nodules. The fixation of CO2 in the nodules seemed to be more tolerant to drought than nitrogenase activity. During the drought treatment there was an osmotic adjustment from -0.9 to -1.7 MPa, but no change in the storage of starch in the nodules. In alders where parts of the root system is kept dry these roots acclimate and continue a persistent nitrogenase activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Actinorhizal (Frankia-nodulated) black alder [Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.] seedlings fertilized with 0.36 mM nitrate (low nitrate fertilizer treatment) or 7.14 mM nitrate (high nitrate fertilizer treatment) and acclimated in a growth chamber for 2 weeks were exposed to 2.5 h of night-time chilling temperatures of -1 to 4°C. Cold treatment decreased nitrogenase activity (acetylene reduction activity) 33% for low nitrate fertilized plants and 41% for high nitrate fertilized plants. Recovery of nitrogenase activity occurred within 7 days after chilling treatment. In contrast, in vivo nitrate reductase (NR) activities of leaves and fine roots increased immediately after chilling then decreased as nitrogenase activities recovered. Fine roots of alder seedlings exhibited NR activities proportional to the amounts of nitrate in the rooting medium. In contrast, the NR activities of leaves were independent of substrate and tissue nitrate levels and corresponded to nitrogenase activity in the root nodules. In a separate experiment, net photosynthesis (PS) of similarly treated black alder seedlings was measured before and after chilling treatments. Net PS declined in response to chilling by 17% for plants receiving low nitrate fertilizer and 19% for plants receiving high nitrate fertilizer. After chilling, stomatal conductance (gs) decreased by 39% and internal CO2 concentration (ci) decreased by 5% in plants receiving the high nitrate fertilizer, whereas plants receiving the low nitrate fertilizer showed no change in gs and a 13% increase in ci;. Results indicate that chilling stimulates stomatal closure only at the high nitrate level and that interference with biochemical functions is probably the major impact of chilling on PS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Citrulline was the major amino acid in root pressure sap, stem sap and stem wood from Alnus glutinosa L. Gaertn, plants relying on fixed nitrogen or, partly or wholly, on mineral nitrogen for growth. Glutamine increased in prominence in plants assimilating mineral nitrogen but asparagine remained, a relatively insignificant component. Differences in the relative amounts of the free amino compounds of stem sap from nitrogen-fixing and mineral nitrogen-fed plants were usually small compared to differences between plants fed different sources of mineral nitrogen. In contrast, relatively high values for the ratios of citrulline/total free amino nitrogen compounds and particularly of citrulline/amides in root pressure sap distinguished nitrogen-fixing plants from those receiving mineral nitrogen. Although the amino acid ratios of stem wood extracts showed closer similarity to those for root pressure sap than stem sap, the seasonal accumulation of citrulline, possibly as a storage amino acid, in stem wood from field-grown plants negated the possibility of utilising stem wood analyses as an indicator of the form of nitrogen assimilation. Comparative data on the levels of citrulline or other free amino acids in Alnus glutinosa are unlikely to be useful as an index of nitrogen fixation, under most experimental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A clone of Alnus incana (L.) Moench was grown in symbiosis with a local source of Frankia or with Frankia Ar14. Seven to 9‐week‐old plants were given 20 mM NH4Cl (20 mM KCl = control) for 3 days. Nitrogenase activity of intact plants decreased gradually within the 3 days of treatment to about 10% of the initial rates. Hydrogen evolution in air and total nitrogenase activity responded similarly to the treatment. Relative efficiency of nitrogenase thus remained the same throughout the study period. Control plants were not affected. Measurements of nitrogenase activity in root nodule homogenates (in vitro measurements) indicated loss of active nitrogenase rather than shortage of energy for nitrogenase activity in Frankia from ammonium‐treated plants. Shoots were exposed to 14CO2 and translocation of 14C to Frankia vesicle clusters prepared from root nodules was studied. Frankia vesicle clusters from ammonium‐treated plants contained about half as much 14C as those of control plants during all 3 days studied. One explanation for the observed effects is that a reduced supply of carbon to Frankia vesicles in the root nodules caused a reduced metabolic rate, including reduced protein synthesis and synthesis of nitrogenase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An open flow‐through gas system was used to determine the effect of C2H2 and elevated O2 on acetylene reduction activity (ARA) and respiration of the intact, potted root system of Alnus incana (L.) Moench in symbiosis with Frankia Avcll or with a local source of Frankia. Both symbiotic systems responded to C2H2 by an immediate plateau range in ARA. The Plateau in ARA was in some cases followed by a decline of less extent than reported for many legumes. A concurrent decline in net respiration of the root system was on average 8% of the CO2 efflux prior to C2H2 introduction. Respiration of the root systems in both symbioses responded to elevated oxygen levels in the 10 kPa C2H2 atmosphere by an increase of up to 17% of the net respiration prior to C2H2 introduction in 21 kPa O2. In contrast, the elevated oxygen levels resulted in an immediate drop in ARA followed by a minor increase to a stable level lower than that at the preceding, lower oxygen tension. The symbiosis with the local Frankia had lost all ARA when the partial pressure of O2 exceeded 50 kPa, whereas the symbiosis with Avcll still had some activity at 80 kPa O2. This difference in tolerance of elevated O2 clearly shows that the oxygen exclusion mechanisms may be controlled by the microsymbiont in Alnus‐Frankia symbioses. The symbiotic systems recovered ARA to a similar extent when returned from elevated O2 levels to 21 kPa O2. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Host compatibility of different spore‐positive (Sp+) and spore‐negative (Sp−) strain types of Frankia from alder stands in Finland was studied in nodulation tests with hydrocultures of Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertner, A. incana (L.) Moench and A. nitida Endl. Root nodules and soil samples from stands of A. incana (Lammi forest and Hämeenlinna forest) were dominated by Sp+ types of Frankia (coded AiSp+ and AiSp+H, respectively), which caused effective root nodules in test plants of A. incana, but failed to induce nodules in A. nitida. In A. glutinosa Frankia strain types AiSp+ and AiSp+H caused small, ineffective root nodules with sporangia (coded Ineff+), which were recognized by the absence or near absence of vesicles in the nodule tissue. Ineffective nodules without sporangia (coded Ineff−) were induced on A. glutinosa with soil samples collected at Lammi swamp. The spore‐negative strain type of Frankia was common in root nodules of A. glutinosa in Finland (Lammi swamp) and caused effective Sp− type root nodules (coded AgSp−) in hydrocultures of A. incana, A. glutinosa and A. nitida. A different Sp+ strain type of Frankia, coded AgSp+-Finland, was occasionally found in stands of A. glutinosa. It was clearly distinguished from strain type AiSp+ by the ability to produce effective nodules on both A. glutinosa and A. incana. The nodulation capacities of soil and nodule samples were calculated from the nodulation response in hydrocutlure and served as a measure for the population density of infective Frankia particles. Sp+ nodules from both strain types had equal and high nodulation capacities with compatible host species. The nodulation capacities of Sp− type root nodules from A. glutinosa were consistently low. High frequencies of Frankia AiSp+ and AiSp+H were found in the soil environment of dominant AiSp+ nodule populations on A. incana. The numbers of infective particles of this strain type were insignificant in the soil environment of nearby Sp− nodule populations on A. glutinosa and in the former field at Hämeenlinna near the Sp+ nodule area in Hämeenlinna forest. Strain type AgSp− had low nodulation capacity in the soil environment of both A. incana and A. glutinosa stands. Explanations for the strong associations between Frankia strain types AiSp+ and AiSp+ H and A. incana and between strain type AgSp− and A. glutinosa are discussed in the light of host specificity and of some characteristics of population dynamics of both strain types. The possible need to adapt the concept of Frankia strain types Sp+ and Sp− to strains with some variation in spore development was stressed by the low potentials of strain type AiSp+H to develop spores in symbioses with hydrocultures of A. incana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The possibility that respiration limits oxygen access to nitrogenase was tested by artificially upsetting the balance between oxygen consumption (respiration) and oxygen influx (diffusion). Argon treatment of the nodulated root system on intact plants stopped in vivo nitrogenase activity almost completely. Upon return to air, nitrogenase activity was very low and recovered gradually to full activity after about 5 h. In vitro measurements on nodule homogenates indicated that active nitrogenase was lost upon the shift from low (argon) to normal (air) oxygen. Maintenance of nodulated root systems at low temperature (2°C) inhibited both respiration and in vivo nitrogenase activity. Upon return to normal temperature (22°C), oxygen uptake recovered very rapidly, but nitrogenase activity recovered only gradually to full activity after about 5 to 6 h. Again, loss of active nitrogenase could, at least partly, explain the reduced in vivo nitrogenase activity. The effects from a temporarily impaired balance between oxygen consumption and oxygen influx thus point to the importance of respiration for limiting oxygen access to nitrogenase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effectivity of nodulation of Alnus rubra Bong. by Frankia isolates from A. rubra and Alnus glutinosa (L) Gaertn. in Northern Britain was compared with strains from The Netherlands and North America, using plants grown in combined nitrogen-free conditions. All strains gave rise to spore (-) nodules, even when isolated from nodules from sites known to contain spore (+) nodules. Nodules of all plants evolved little hydrogen, probably due to the presence of an efficient uptake hydrogenase in the microsymbionts. Nodule weight as a percentage of whole plant weight was higher for nodules of low specific activity (N fixed per unit weight nodules), attaining a maximum of 5.1% of plant dry weight in the least effective of the heterologous associations of A. glutinosa Frankia with A. rubra. The range of variation in nodule specific activity was much greater in heterologous than homologous associations, but nodules of high specific activity were found in both associations. However, plants that fixed most N during the growth period were not those with nodules of highest specific activity. The most effective associations were homologous symbioses, which combined good nodule growth per plant with satisfactory specific activity, fixing N at rates which would support superior plant growth under the prevailing growth conditions. Preliminary field experiments suggest that the most effective of the A. rubra isolates is suitable for use as an inoculant in nurseries. Strains isolated from A. glutinosa were more effective and showed a different order of effectivity in homologous symbioses compared with their association with A. rubra. An A. glutinosa strain was isolated, which stimulated satisfactory nodule growth and gave good nodule specific activity in both A. rubra and A. glutinosa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of short day and low temperature on cold acclimation of A. crispa (Ait.) Pursh., A. glutinosa (L.) Gaertn, and A. rubra Bong, was investigated. Two clones of each species originating from in vitro propagation were exposed to three daylength/temperature treatments. Periodically plantlets were exposed to controlled freezing temperature in order to evaluate their level of frost hardiness. Short day (SD) and cold temperature (CT) and long day (LD) and cold temperature (CT) were the most effective treatments for the development of frost hardiness in shoots and roots of the three species tested. Short day (SD) and warm temperature (WT) induced a significant increase in hardiness in shoots of all three species. However, this treatment did not trigger root hardening. A. crispa was found to be the hardiest species followed by A. glutinosa and A. rubra. Intraspecific variation was observed between the two A. glutinosa clones. A. glutinosa clone AG8, a Russian provenance, showed a greater freezing resistance than A. glutinosa clone AG2, a German provenance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Biochemical analysis of Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn. root exudates was carried out in order to investigate the probable role of these exudates in the establishment of the Alnus-Frankia symbiosis. Sufficient amounts of sterile root exudates were collected from plants originating from five in vitro-micropropagated A. glutinosa clones (AG1, AG2, AG3, AG4, AG8) grown under aerobic conditions in nutrient solution with Ballotini glass beads. Cytological controls showed good preservation of roots at the end of the collecting period. The total protein and sugar contents of crude root exudates were determined and related to the dry root weight. These results showed a provenance effect. Soluble high molecular-weight fractions (i.e. the mucilage) were isolated following rigorous purification of the crude root exudates and within this fraction proteins were characterized by isoelectric focusing. The protein pattern of the five clones tested showed major bands in common and some minor specific ones. These experimental data will serve as a useful basis for future physiological investigations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Germinated seeds from 11 populations of green alder [Alnus crispa (Ait.) Pursh] sampled in four Canadian provinces were analysed for electrophoretically demonstrable diversity of 10 enzymes encoded by 15 structural loci. Of these, nine were polymorphic, and on average, 52% of the loci per population were polymorphic. Assuming a diploid model of expression, average level of expected heterozygosity was 0.11 with nearly all populations in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium for the set of polymorphic loci analysed. No significant inbreeding and associated subpopulation structuring were noted. Rates of gene flow appeared high within and among populations. Although little divergence was observed among populations, genetic and geographical distances between populations were related. Discriminant and cluster analyses revealed a pattern of genetic variation associated with geography. Populations from northern Québec were poorly differentiated, whereas western populations from Alberta exhibited a larger degree of genetic differentiation. Introgressive hybridization with the sympatric species Alnus sinuata (Regel) Rydberg and partial isolation in the West are suggested as an explanation for this larger differentiation. The occurrence and significance of rare alleles is discussed in relation to the importance of geographical distance in the process of population differentiation in this species. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Host specificity between local Frankia strains and native alders [Alnus incana (L.) Moench and A. glutinosa (L.) Gaertn.] was evaluated in inoculation experiments. Pure cultures of Frankia, whether originating from A. incana or A. glutinosa, were infective and effective on both host species. These pure cultures were isolated from spore-negative (Sp-) nodules. From spare-positive (Sp+) nodules no Frankia isolates were obtained. This strain type resisted all our isolation attempts and therefore crushed nodules had to be used for Sp+ type inoculations. The Sp+ type Frankia populations differed in their host specificity. Sp+ nodules from A. glutinosa were effective on both alder species, but Sp+ nodules from A. incana induced effective nodules only on the original host; on A. glutinosa only small (1-3 mm) prenodule-like structures were found. Such A. glutinosa plants died on N-free medium, thus showing that these nodules were ineffective. In the effective nodules the middle cortex was dominated by infected cells filled with vesicle clusters. In the ineffective nodules only a few cortical cells were infected and sporangia predominated in these cells. Surprisingly enough they also contained vesicle-like structures as demonstrated in electron micrographs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fifty strains of Frankia were tested for their ability to nodulate six species of actinorhizal plants. Pure cultured strains were used to inoculate seedlings of Alnus glutinosa (L.) Gaertn., Alnus rubra Bong., Casuarina equisetifolia L., Elaeagnus angustifolia L., Hippophaë rhamnoides L. and Myrica cerifera L. in nutrient solution culture. From the results of this study, host inoculation groups among the actinorhizal plants were defined. Although overlap between host inoculation groups appears to be common, the results from this study did not support the view that Frankia strains are promiscuous. All Frankia strains tested in this study could easily be classified into four major host-specificity groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Frankia strains have been isolated from actinorhizal nodules of Alnus (2 strains), Casuarina (5 strains), Coriaria (1 strain), Datisca (3 strains), Elaeagnus (1 strain) and Hippophaë (1 strain). The isolates were characterized for their growth on various carbon and nitrogen sources, nitrogen-fixing ability in culture and nodulation of seedlings of the original host plant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seedlings of Alnus incana (L.) Moench were studied in controlled environmental conditions. Net photosynthetic capacity of four plants simultaneously as well as light, temperature, and atmospheric water pressure deficit were continuously recorded during approximately two months. The potted plants were continuously given known quantities of water. Two different effects of water stress were found in the experimental plants. When sufficient amounts of water had been available to them, photosynthetic CO2 fixation rates largely followed the variation in temperature and light. On the other hand, after prolonged water stress, higher temperatures caused a large decrease in net CO2 uptake even if the plant apparently had sufficient water during the actual measurements. Possible mechanisms for this effect are discussed. Effects of water stress on photosynthesis were studied at a constant temperature as well as in conditions where temperature, light, soil water content, and atmospheric water vapor pressure were allowed to vary in a complex pattern. Mathematical models for expressing net CO2 uptake as a function of environmental variables were constructed for both of these experimental situations. However, only the latter approach clearly demonstrated the fundamental role of temperature in controlling the photosynthesis of plants under water stress. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Experiments with associated cultures of alder and spruce in quartz sand without combined nitrogen are reported on in this paper. The experiments were started in 1931 and finished in 1942. The results and the arrangement of the experiments from the first year (1931-1934) have been reported in detail earlier. There present results show that the spruce has obtained nitrogen fixed in the root nodules of alder although leaves falling in autumn were always carefully removed from the surface of the sand. Data are also given on the amounts of nitrogen fixed by the root nodules of the alder during the first 7 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]