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Xyloglucan is a polysaccharide that has important roles in the formation and function of the walls that surround growing land plant cells. Many of these plants synthesize xyloglucan that contains galactose in two different side chains (L and F), which exist in distinct molecular environments. However, little is known about the contribution of these side chains to xyloglucan function. Here, we show that Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) mutants devoid of the F side chain galactosyltransferase MURUS3 (MUR3) form xyloglucan that lacks F side chains and contains much less galactosylated xylose than its wild-type counterpart. The galactose- depleted xyloglucan is dysfunctional, as it leads to mutants that are dwarfed with curled rosette leaves, short petioles, and short in florescence stems. Moreover, cell wall matrix polysaccharides, including xyloglucan and pectin, are not properly secreted and instead accumulate within intracellular aggregates. Near-normal growth is restored by generating mur3 mutants that produce no detectable amounts of xyloglucan. Thus, cellular processes are affected more by the presence of the dysfunctional xyloglucan than by eliminating xyloglucan altogether. To identify structural features responsible for xyloglucan dysfunction, xyloglucan structure was modified in situ by generating mur3 mutants that lack specific xyloglucan xylosyltransferases (XXTs) or that overexpress the XYLOGLUCAN L-SIDE CHAIN GALACTOSYLTRANSFERASE2 (XLT2) gene. Normal growth was restored in the mur3-3 mutant overexpressing XLT2 and in mur3-3 xxt double mutants when the dysfunctional xyloglucan was modified by doubling the amounts of galactosylated side chains. Our study assigns a role for galactosylation in normal xyloglucan function and demonstrates that altering xyloglucan side chain structure disturbs diverse cellular and physiological processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The factors that mediate specific responses to the plant hormone ethylene are not fully defined. In particular, it is not known how signaling at the receptor complex can control distinct subsets of ethylene responses. Mutations at the Green-ripe (Gr) and reversion to ethylene sensitivity1 (rte1) loci, which encode homologous proteins of unknown function, influence ethylene responses in tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), respectively. In Arabidopsis, AtRTE1 is required for function of the ETR1 ethylene receptor and acts predominantly through this receptor via direct protein-protein interaction. While most eudicot families including the Brassicaceae possess a single gene that is closely related to AtRTE1, we report that members of the Solanaceae family contain two phylogenetically distinct genes defined by GR and GREEN-RIPE LIKE1 (GRL1), creating the possibility of subfunctionalization. We also show that SlGR and SlGRL1 are differentially expressed in tomato tissues and encode proteins predominantly localized to the Golgi. A combination of overexpression in tomato and complementation of the rte1-3 mutant allele indicates that SlGR and SlGRL1 influence distinct but overlapping ethylene responses. Overexpression of SlGRL1 in the Gr mutant background provides evidence for the existence of different ethylene signaling modules in tomato that are influenced by GR, GRL1, or both. In addition, overexpression of AtRTE1 in tomato leads to reduced ethylene responsiveness in a subset of tissues but does not mimic the Gr mutant phenotype. Together, these data reveal species-specific heterogeneity in the control of ethylene responses mediated by members of the GR/RTE1 family. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Photosynthesis occurs in mesophyll cells of specialized organs such as leaves. The rigid cell wall encapsulating photosynthetic cells controls the expansion and distribution of cells within photosynthetic tissues. The relationship between photosynthesis and plant growth is affected by leaf area. However, the underlying genetic mechanisms affecting carbon partitioning to different aspects of leaf growth are not known. To fill this gap, we analyzed Arabidopsis plants with altered levels of pectin methylesterification, which is known to modulate cell wall plasticity and plant growth. Pectin methylesterification levels were varied through manipulation of cotton Golgi-related (CGR) 2 or 3 genes encoding two functionally redundant pectin methyltransferases. Increased levels of methylesterification in a line over-expressing CGR2 (CGR2OX) resulted in highly expanded leaves with enhanced intercellular air spaces; reduced methylesterification in a mutant lacking both CGR-genes 2 and 3 (cgr2/3) resulted in thin but dense leaf mesophyll that limited CO2 diffusion to chloroplasts. Leaf, root, and plant dry weight were enhanced in CGR2OX but decreased in cgr2/3. Differences in growth between wild type and the CGR-mutants can be explained by carbon partitioning but not by variations in area-based photosynthesis. Therefore, photosynthesis drives growth through alterations in carbon partitioning to new leaf area growth and leaf mass per unit leaf area; however, CGR-mediated pectin methylesterification acts as a primary factor in this relationship through modulation of the expansion and positioning of the cells in leaves, which in turn drive carbon partitioning by generating dynamic carbon demands in leaf area growth and leaf mass per unit leaf area., (© 2016 American Society of Plant Biologists. All Rights Reserved.)