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Nipple-sparing mastectomy has been associated with superior aesthetic outcomes and oncologic safety. However, traditional contraindications, such as breast ptosis/macromastia, have excluded a large number of patients. The purpose of this study was to determine whether a staged approach would expand the indications for nipple-areolar complex preservation and permit greater control over nipple-areolar complex position and skin envelope following autologous reconstruction.A retrospective analysis was conducted of female patients with a diagnosis of breast cancer or BRCA mutation with grade 2 or 3 ptosis and/or macromastia who underwent bilateral (oncoplastic) reduction/mastopexy (stage 1) followed by bilateral nipple-sparing mastectomy with immediate reconstruction with free abdominal flaps (stage 2). The authors were specifically interested in the incidence of mastectomy skin necrosis and nipple-areolar complex necrosis and malposition following stage 2.Sixty-one patients with a mean age of 45.1 years (range, 28 to 62 years) and mean body mass index of 32.6 kg/m (range, 23.4 to 49.0 kg/m) underwent reconstruction with 122 flaps. The mean interval between stage 1 and 2 was 16.9 weeks (range, 3 to 31 weeks). Clear margins were obtained in all cases of invasive cancer and in situ disease following stage 1. Complications following stage 2 included partial nipple-areolar complex necrosis (n = 5, 8.2 percent), complete nipple-areolar complex necrosis (n = 4, 6.6 percent), nipple-areolar complex malposition (n = 1, 1.6 percent), and mastectomy skin necrosis (n = 4, 6.6 percent). No flap loss was noted in this series.Patients with moderate to severe breast ptosis and/or macromastia who wish to undergo mastectomy with reconstruction can be offered nipple-sparing approaches safely if a staged algorithm is implemented.Therapeutic, IV.

Background Prepectoral breast reconstruction following mastectomy has become a more widely performed technique in recent years because of its numerous benefits for women. These include full pectoralis muscle preservation, reduced loss of strength, reduced pain, and elimination of animation deformity. As with any breast reconstruction technique, widespread adoption is dependent on a low morbidity profile in the setting of postmastectomy radiation therapy, as this adjuvant therapy is routine in breast cancer treatment. The authors assess the clinical outcomes of patients undergoing postmastectomy radiation therapy following prepectoral breast reconstruction, and compare these to outcomes of patients undergoing postmastectomy radiation therapy with submuscular reconstruction. Methods A single surgeon's experience with immediate prepectoral breast reconstruction, followed by postmastectomy radiation therapy, from 2015 to 2017 was reviewed. Patient demographics and incidence of complications during the tissue expander stage were assessed. In addition, the morbidity profile of these patients was compared to that of patients undergoing submuscular/dual-plane reconstruction and postmastectomy radiation therapy over the same period. Results Over 3 years, 175 breasts underwent immediate prepectoral reconstruction, and 236 breasts underwent immediate submuscular/dual-plane reconstruction. Overall rates of adjuvant radiation therapy (postmastectomy radiation therapy) were similar between prepectoral [26 breasts (14.9 percent)] and submuscular [31 breasts (13.1 percent)] (p = 0.6180) reconstruction. There were no significant differences in complication rates between the two reconstructive cohorts, in the setting of postmastectomy radiation therapy, including rates of explantation (15.4 percent versus 19.3 percent; p = 0.695). Conclusions Prepectoral breast reconstruction is a safe and effective option in the setting of postmastectomy radiation therapy. The morbidity profile is similar to that encountered with submuscular reconstruction in this setting. Clinical question/level of evidence Therapeutic, III.

BACKGROUND Animation deformity is an undesirable outcome of subpectoral breast reconstruction that results in abnormal breast contraction with activity, breast pain, and increased implant visibility. Surgical correction requires implant removal and conversion of the reconstruction to a prepectoral plane. The authors present their institutional experience with their preferred surgical technique to treat this challenging problem and outline solutions for increased success in these patients. METHODS A retrospective review was performed of all patients undergoing conversion of their subpectoral breast reconstruction to a prepectoral plane at the authors' institution. Patient demographics and surgical details were analyzed, and postoperative outcomes and morbidity were assessed. The effects of changing operative strategies on enhanced success are also reported. RESULTS A total of 80 breast conversions were performed over a 2.5-year period. All patients demonstrated resolution of animation deformity at a mean follow-up of 15.2 months. Two reconstructions (2.5 percent) required an unplanned return to the operating room, and 11 reconstructions (13.8 percent) were treated for infection. Preconversion fat grafting and the use of acellular dermal matrix were both associated with a reduced incidence of postoperative asymmetry and capsular contracture (p < 0.05). There were no reconstructive failures associated with conversion to a prepectoral pocket. CONCLUSIONS Treatment of animation deformity in the reconstructed patient can be safely performed by surgical conversion to a prepectoral plane. The use of acellular dermal matrix, and preconversion fat grafting, in appropriate patients can improve results. The authors promote this operative algorithm for all reconstructive patients experiencing symptomatic animation deformity with subpectoral breast reconstruction. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Therapeutic, IV.

Prepectoral breast reconstruction has emerged as an excellent technique for postmastectomy reconstruction, as it allows for full preservation of a patient's pectoralis major muscle and chest wall function. This reduces pain, eliminates animation deformity, and results in high patient satisfaction. Safely performed prepectoral breast reconstruction requires a careful patient selection process before committing to the procedure, taking into account comorbidities, radiation status, and oncologic criteria such as tumor location and breast cancer stage. Furthermore, a thorough intraoperative assessment of mastectomy skin flaps is critical, with careful and precise confirmation that the skin is viable and well perfused, prior to proceeding with prepectoral breast reconstruction. This can be done both clinically and with perfusion assessment devices. The use of acellular dermal matrix (ADM) has enhanced outcomes and aesthetics of prepectoral reconstruction, by providing implant coverage and soft-tissue support. The ADM also adds the benefit of reducing capsular contracture rates and offers full control over the aesthetic definition of the newly reconstructed breast pocket. Aesthetic enhancement of results requires routine use of oversizing implants in the skin envelope, careful selection of full capacity or cohesive gel implants, and autologous fat grafting. In this way, patients in all clinical scenarios can benefit from the full muscle-sparing technique of prepectoral breast reconstruction, including those undergoing immediate reconstruction, delayed reconstruction, and delayed conversion from a subpectoral to prepectoral plane to correct animation deformity.

Approximately 50,000 women in the United States undergo mastectomy and immediate prosthetic breast reconstruction annually, and most receive postoperative prophylactic antibiotics. The effect of these antibiotics on the risk of surgical-site infections remains unclear.The authors searched the Medline, Embase, and Cochrane Library databases for studies that compared less than 24 hours and greater than 24 hours of antibiotics following immediate prosthetic breast reconstruction. Primary outcomes were surgical-site infections and implant loss. Conservative random effects models were used to obtain pooled relative risk estimates.The authors identified 927 studies, but only four cohort studies and one randomized controlled trial met their inclusion criteria. Unadjusted incidences of surgical-site infections were 14 percent with more than 24 hours of antibiotics, 19 percent with less than 24 hours of antibiotics, and 16 percent overall. Unadjusted incidences of implant loss were 8 percent with more than 24 hours of antibiotics, 10 percent with less than 24 hours of antibiotics, and 9 percent overall. The pooled relative risk of implant loss was 1.17 (95 percent CI, 0.39 to 3.6) with less than 24 hours of antibiotics, which was not statistically significant.Prolonged antibiotic use did not have a statistically significant effect on reducing surgical-site infections or implant loss. There was significant heterogeneity between studies, and prolonged antibiotics may have increased the risk of implant loss in the randomized controlled trial. Definitive evidence may only be obtained with data from more prospective randomized controlled trials.

Prepectoral breast reconstruction carries many benefits to patients, including its minimally invasive (muscle-sparing) nature, and its reduction in symptoms such as pain and animation deformity, relative to subpectoral reconstruction. However, without the traditional use of the pectoralis major muscle to mask the upper pole of the implant, and dictate the shape of the upper pole, certain steps must be taken to ensure the optimal aesthetic outcome in prepectoral reconstruction. Surgeons have utilized acellular dermal matrices, fat grafting, and highly cohesive implants to improve outcomes. Among the most important steps is the proper implant selection. To this end, the authors routinely utilize round form-stable gel implants, when performing prepectoral breast reconstruction. These implants offer improved aesthetic outcomes, given their ability to reduce rates of rippling and edge visibility. Furthermore, the characteristics of a soft and naturally shaped breast are achieved despite the lack of muscle coverage. The authors believe that reproducibly successful prepectoral reconstruction is dependent on proper technique. In this article, we present the proper techniques necessary for optimizing outcomes when using these implants in 2-stage prepectoral breast reconstruction.

Background:Total skin-sparing mastectomy, with preservation of the nipple-areola complex, must account for adjuvant medical and surgical treatments for cancer. The authors assessed risk factors for complications after second-stage tissue expander–implant exchange.Methods:The authors reviewed all ins

BACKGROUND To help prevent complications after incisional ventral hernia repair, traditional teaching has recommended using closed suction drains. However, some studies suggest that there is an increased infection risk with use of surgical drains, and it is uncertain whether use of extended postoperative prophylactic antibiotics while drains remain in place helps prevent surgical-site infections. Evidence guiding surgeons' clinical practice regarding antibiotic use following hernia repair is lacking. METHODS The authors sought to determine whether the use of extended postoperative antibiotic prophylaxis beyond standard Surgical Care Improvement Project guidelines with closed-suction surgical drain placement in incisional ventral hernia repair reduces the incidence of postoperative surgical-site infections. A retrospective review of 234 patients who underwent an incisional ventral hernia repair from 2003 to 2013 at a single institution was performed. Demographic, preoperative, operative, and postoperative data were collected and analyzed. RESULTS Extended postoperative prophylactic antibiotics significantly reduce the incidence of postoperative surgical-site infections (OR, 0.31; p < 0.01). The odds ratio, when stratified by Ventral Hernia Working Group Scale, was 0.63, 0.25, 0.30, and 0.13 (p < 0.001 by the Mantel-Haenszel combined test) for grades 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively, but was not statistically significant for differences between hernia grades. However, as the hernia grade increased, the odds ratio tended to decrease, suggesting that extended prophylactic antibiotics may be more effective at decreasing the incidence of surgical-site infections at higher grades. CONCLUSION Extended antibiotic prophylaxis reduces surgical site infection risk following complex ventral hernia repairs, and should be considered in all cases. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Therapeutic, III.

BACKGROUND The current state of employment satisfaction in plastic surgery has not been defined. Similarly, the factors influencing residents as they search for employment and the role of attending surgeons as mentors in this process have not been elicited. The authors aim to elucidate these measures through a survey of attending surgeons and senior residents. METHODS A survey was created assessing employment satisfaction and was distributed to members of the American Society of Plastic Surgeons with available contact information. Responses were analyzed, with values of p < 0.05 deemed significant. RESULTS A total of 616 plastic surgeons and senior plastic surgery residents responded. Compared with attending surgeons in private practice, those in academic practice were more satisfied with their case mix (p = 0.0005; OR, not significant) and less satisfied with their incentive structure (p = 0.0001; OR, 0.3155) and payor mix (p = 0.0005; OR, 0.6156). Employment change occurred in 225 surgeons (39.2 percent) since beginning practice. Surgeons that changed employment ranked base salary (p = 0.0031), earning potential (p = 0.0001), and incentive structure (p = 0.0001) as most important. Those that did not change employment ranked lifestyle (p = 0.0048), location (p = 0.0001), and desire to teach (p = 0.0002) as more important. Residents ranked location (p = 0.0030), desired case mix (p = 0.0131), and desire or lack of desire to teach residents (p = 0.0329) as more important than attending surgeons felt they should be, and guaranteed salary (p = 0.0178) and incentive structure (p = 0.0069) as less important. CONCLUSIONS In an evolving health care environment, plastic surgeons' employment satisfaction is significantly dependent on a myriad of factors. Residents and their attending mentors differ significantly in perceived importance of these factors.

BACKGROUND Larger breast size has been viewed as a relative contraindication for nipple/areola preservation with mastectomy. Few studies have directly evaluated the effect of quantified breast size on postoperative outcomes. METHODS The authors reviewed and assessed 325 total skin-sparing mastectomy cases performed in 224 patients with immediate tissue expander placement that had documented mastectomy specimen mass. Cases were divided into two groups based on having larger (>352 grams) or smaller (≤352 grams) breast mass. RESULTS Patients in the larger group had a mean body mass index that was 3.6 kg/m2 greater (p < 0.001). Overall, the larger group had an 8.1 percent increase in risk of superficial nipple necrosis (adjusted relative risk 4.0; 95 percent CI, 1.5 to 10.3). There were non-significant trends toward a 4.3 percent increase in risk of minor skin necrosis (adjusted relative risk 2.0; 95 percent CI, 0.7 to 6.4) and a 4.4 percent increase in risk of wound breakdown (adjusted relative risk 1.8; 95 percent CI, 0.8 to 3.7) with larger breast mass. Stratifying by radiation exposure, there was a non-significant trend toward a 5.4 percent increase in risk of wound breakdown (adjusted relative risk 2.9; 95 percent CI, 0.9 to 8.8) with larger breast mass in the stratum without radiation exposure. CONCLUSIONS Larger breast mass was associated with an increased risk of superficial nipple necrosis and trends toward increased risks of minor skin necrosis and wound breakdown. Larger breast mass was not associated with an increased risk of nipple or skin flap necrosis requiring operative management. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Risk, II.

BACKGROUND The poorly healing perineal wound is a significant complication of abdominoperineal resection. The authors examined criteria for immediate flap coverage of the perineum and long-term cross-sectional surgical outcomes. METHODS Patients who underwent abdominoperineal resection or pelvic exenteration for anorectal cancer were retrospectively analyzed. Demographic characteristics, premorbid and oncologic data, surgical treatment, reconstruction method, and recovery were recorded. Outcomes of successful wound healing, surgical complications necessitating intervention (admission or return to the operating room), and progression to chronic wounds were assessed. RESULTS The authors identified 214 patients who underwent this procedure from 1995 to 2013. Forty-seven patients received pedicled flaps and had higher rates of recurrence and reoperation, active smoking, Crohn disease, human immunodeficiency virus, and anal cancers, and had higher American Joint Committee on Cancer tumor stages. Thirty-day complication rates were equivalent in the two groups. There were no complete flap losses or reconstructive failures. Perineal wound complication rates were marginally but not significantly higher in the flap group (55 percent versus 41 percent; p = 0.088). Infectious complications, readmissions for antibiotics, and operative revision were more frequent in the flap cohort. A larger proportion of the primary closure cohort developed chronic draining perineal wounds (23.3 versus 8.5 percent; p = 0.025). CONCLUSIONS Immediate flap coverage of the perineum was less likely to progress to a chronic draining wound, but had higher local infectious complication rates. The authors attribute this to increased comorbidity in the selected patient population, reflecting the surgical decision making in approaching these high-risk closures and ascertainment bias in diagnosis of infectious complications with multidisciplinary examination. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Risk, III.

Background Adipose fat transfer is increasingly used for contour corrections of the tumor bed after lumpectomy and breast reconstructions after mastectomy. The lipophilic nature of the fat tissue may render adipocytes an ideal vehicle with which to deliver a high boost of an antiestrogen to the tumor bed to serve as an adjunct systemic hormonal therapy. The authors therefore tested whether adipocytes could safely be loaded with an antiestrogen and allow for release at therapeutic concentrations to treat breast cancer. Methods Adipose tissue was collected from patients undergoing autologous fat grafting. The influence of adipose tissue on tumorigenesis was determined both in vitro and in vivo using breast cancer cell lines. Ex vivo, adipose tissue was assessed for its ability to depot fulvestrant and inhibit the growth of breast cancer cell lines. Results Adipose tissue harvested from patients did not promote breast cancer cell growth in vitro or in an in vivo mouse model. Adipose tissue was successfully loaded with fulvestrant and released at levels sufficient to inhibit estrogen receptor signaling and growth of breast cancer cells. Conclusions This work supports the hypothesis that adipose tissue used for autologous fat grafting can serve as a novel method for local drug delivery. As this technique is used to reconstruct a variety of postsurgical defects following cancer resection, this approach for local drug delivery may be an effective alternative in therapeutic settings beyond breast cancer.

Background Radiation therapy is increasingly used in breast cancer therapy. With total skin-sparing mastectomy and nipple/areola complex preservation, defining the risks of various treatment regimens for morbidity is important, in the setting of immediate prosthetic reconstruction. The authors assessed the effects of premastectomy and postmastectomy radiation therapy on outcomes in total skin-sparing mastectomy and immediate prosthetic reconstruction. Methods All patients undergoing total skin-sparing mastectomy and immediate prosthetic reconstruction at the authors' institution between 2006 and 2012 were identified. Cohort 1 included patients undergoing total skin-sparing mastectomy and reconstruction with no radiation. Cohort 2 included patients with a prior history of radiation before total skin-sparing mastectomy and reconstruction. Cohort 3 included patients undergoing radiation after total skin-sparing mastectomy and reconstruction. Results A total of 580 patients underwent 903 breast reconstructions following total skin-sparing mastectomy. Cohort 1 included 727 breasts, cohort 2 included 63 breasts, and cohort 3 included 113 breasts. Any radiation delivery caused an increased rate of infection requiring antibiotics (21.6 percent, p = 0.00) and an increased risk of expander/implant loss (18.75 percent, p = 0.00). Cohort 2 had a higher risk of wound breakdown (p = 0.012). All cohorts showed similar low rates of nipple/areola necrosis. Conclusions Both preoperative and postoperative radiation following total skin-sparing mastectomy and immediate prosthetic reconstruction result in higher, but acceptable, complication risks. Complications related to nipple/areola preservation are similar to those in nonradiated patients and in those undergoing skin-sparing mastectomy. Thus, nipple/areola complex preservation is safe in women undergoing radiation therapy. Clinical question/level of evidence Therapeutic, III.

Postoperative complications after total skin-sparing mastectomy and expander-implant reconstruction can negatively impact outcomes, particularly in the setting of postmastectomy radiation therapy. The authors studied whether rates of ischemic complications after postmastectomy radiation therapy are impacted by the total skin-sparing mastectomy incision.The authors queried a prospectively collected database of patients undergoing total skin-sparing mastectomy and immediate two-stage expander-implant reconstruction. Their hypothesis was that, in the setting of radiation therapy, patients with inframammary incisions would be more likely to develop ischemic complications than those without incisions on the dependent portion of the breast. We divided our patient cohort into two groups, those with inframammary incisions and those with other incisions, and then analyzed the proportion that received radiation therapy.Of 756 cases included in the analysis, 91 (12 percent) received postmastectomy radiation therapy, 62 (68.1 percent) with inframammary incisions and 29 (31.9 percent) with other incisions. Mean follow-up was 3.1 years. Rates of mastectomy skin flap necrosis (3.2 percent versus 6.9 percent, p=0.4) following radiation therapy were not significantly higher in the inframammary group. However, breakdown of the total skin-sparing mastectomy incision was twice as likely in the inframammary group (21 percent versus 10.3 percent, p=0.2) and was more likely to lead to subsequent implant removal when incisional breakdown occurred (77 percent versus 0 percent, p=0.03).Total skin-sparing mastectomy incision type may impact rates of incisional breakdown and implant loss following postmastectomy radiation therapy, with higher rates seen with inframammary incisions. Multiple factors, including breast size, breast ptosis, and likelihood of radiation therapy, should be considered in determining optimal incision.Therapeutic, III.

Abdominally based, autologous free-flap breast reconstruction has become widely practiced, as it allows for natural appearing breasts while utilizing one’s own abdominal subcutaneous tissue. There has been an effort to better characterize the epigastric vascular territory in order to optimize outcomes in autologous breast reconstruction. It has been demonstrated that the superficial epigastric venous system is the dominant venous drainage of the anterior abdominal wall. However, the presence and preservation of communicating veins between the dominant superficial system and the deep inferior epigastric venous perforators allows for the majority of abdominally based flaps to be based on the deep venous system. Intraoperative venous congestion, although rare, is multifactorial and may be caused by persistent superficial venous system dominance. In this case, retrograde venous outflow from the superficial to the deep venous system is compromised. It is of utmost importance that the surgeon recognizes and correctly identifies the specific etiology of flap compromise, to allow for correct implementation of a strategy for management. Other notable causes of venous congestion in autologous flaps include inadequate perforator selection, and prolonged flap ischemia time prior to revascularization.

The use of acellular dermal matrix to assist in two-stage expander/implant breast reconstruction has increased over recent years. However, there are questions regarding the potential for increased morbidity when using these techniques relative to standard submuscular coverage techniques. This systematic review combines published data comparing the techniques, to compare morbidity and advantages of acellular dermal matrix relative to standard submuscular coverage techniques.An English language literature search was performed to find articles reporting outcomes of two-stage expander/implant reconstruction using acellular dermal matrix. The outcome categories analyzed were patient/treatment demographics, tissue expander characteristics, and complications.Nine articles met inclusion criteria for this analysis. Six of these were matched cohort studies comparing outcomes of acellular dermal matrix techniques to standard submuscular techniques. The remaining three were case series of acellular dermal matrix techniques. The only difference found in complications was a higher rate of seroma for the acellular dermal matrix group (4.3 percent versus 8.4 percent, p = 0.03). Despite this, both groups illustrated similar rates of infection leading to explantation (3.2 percent for submuscular and 3.4 percent for acellular dermal matrix, p = 0.18). In addition, acellular dermal matrix techniques illustrated greater intraoperative fill volumes and consistently fewer fills required to reach expander capacity.The use of acellular dermal matrix in two-stage expander/implant reconstruction offers a safety profile similar to that of standard submuscular techniques. Both techniques have shown similar rates of infection ultimately requiring explantation. In addition, acellular dermal matrix offers the advantage of a more rapid reconstruction with less need for manipulation of the prosthetic through filling.Therapeutic, III.

Background Advantages of the pedicled rectus femoris myofascial flap for groin wound coverage include a sufficient arc of rotation to reach the groin and inguinal region, a dependable vascular pedicle, and low donor-site morbidity. The authors aim to demonstrate the functional deficit resulting from use of the rectus femoris flap in groin wound reconstruction. Methods One hundred six rectus femoris flaps were performed for groin wound reconstruction over a 10-year period. From this cohort, consent was successfully obtained from 20 patients for testing of thigh function. Testing included both a subjective questionnaire eliciting patient assessment of postoperative thigh strength, and objective muscle strength testing using isometric dynamometer analysis. An age- and sex-matched control group of 20 subjects with no operative history or known discrepancy of thigh strength underwent identical testing. Results : Subjects were tested an average of 33 months postoperatively. Dynamometer studies demonstrated a mean nonoperative and operative thigh peak torque of 135 ft-lb and 104 ft-lb, respectively, or a 21 percent difference in isometric knee extensor strength favoring the dominant leg (p = 0.02). Similarly, the control group exhibited a 17 percent strength difference between both thighs (p = 0.04). Conclusions Operative subjects exhibited a lower peak torque generated by the operative leg relative to the nonoperative leg. However, a similar difference was observed in the matched control cohort. Thus, there is little isolated deficit in quadriceps strength as a result of rectus femoris harvest.

Background: Female plastic surgeons are well suited to make a personal choice regarding breast reconstruction options, based on their knowledge of the actual procedures and first-hand experience with results. The authors surveyed this group to elicit their personal views on various modalities of breast reconstruction and to ascertain which types of reconstruction they would choose if faced with such a decision. Methods: All board-certified female plastic surgeons in the United States and Canada were surveyed by means of e-mail. This survey included questions regarding basic demographic and practice data. Respondents were requested to rank desired methods of reconstruction for themselves and to cite reasons for these choices. Results: A total of 435 surveys were sent: 350 were delivered (85 had invalid e-mail addresses), and 143 were returned (response rate, 41 percent). Overall, 66 percent of respondents chose implant-based reconstruction, 25 percent chose autologous reconstruction, and 9 percent chose no reconstruction. Respondents selecting autologous reconstruction cited cosmetic outcome as the most important factor considered in 47 percent of cases, compared with 14 percent of those choosing implant-based breast reconstruction (p = 0.0001). Invasiveness of the procedure/ recovery time was cited as the most important factor by 83 percent of those surgeons opting for no breast reconstruction and by 51 percent of those choosing implantbased breast reconstruction (p = 0.0175). Conclusions: Board-certified female plastic surgeons exhibit a strong desire to pursue implant-based breast reconstruction over autologous reconstruction. When it was chosen, autologous reconstruction was felt to offer improved aesthetic out comes. When making such a decision, patients can use female plastic surgeons as a resource for information, thus helping them to make an informed decision.

BACKGROUND The American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program database was implemented to longitudinally track surgical 30-day surgical outcomes and complications. The authors analyze the program-reported outcomes for immediate breast reconstruction from 2007 to 2011, to assess whether longitudinal data collection has improved national outcomes and to highlight areas in need of continued improvement. METHODS The authors reviewed the database from 2007 to 2011 and identified encounters for immediate breast reconstruction using Current Procedural Terminology codes for prosthetic and autologous reconstruction. Demographics and comorbidities were tabulated for all patients. Postoperative complications analyzed included surgical-site infection, wound dehiscence, implant or flap loss, pulmonary embolism, and respiratory infections. RESULTS A total of 15,978 patients underwent mastectomy and immediate reconstruction. Fewer smokers underwent immediate reconstruction over time (p=0.126), whereas more obese patients (p=0.001) and American Society of Anesthesiologists class 3 and 4 patients (p

Background Reported 10-year patient survival after liver transplantation is nearing 70 percent, with similar trends seen for kidney transplantation. With increasing life expectancy, these patients have an increased need for posttransplant reconstructive surgery. Thus, plastic surgeons must know the effects of immunosuppressive medications on outcomes in microvascular reconstruction. Methods A retrospective review was performed on all immunosuppressed solid-organ transplant patients who underwent subsequent free tissue transfer of all types, over an 8-year period. Patient demographics, type of solid organ transplant, immunosuppressive regimen, anticoagulation regimen, associated medical comorbidities, and complication rates were analyzed. Results Twenty-four microvascular free tissue transfers were performed over an 8-year period on immunosuppressed patients, for head and neck and lower extremity reconstruction. Fifteen patients (63 percent) underwent prior kidney transplant, seven (29 percent) underwent prior liver transplant, and two (8 percent) underwent prior lung transplant. Prednisone (79 percent of patients), cyclosporine (33 percent), and tacrolimus (33 percent) were the most commonly used immunosuppressive medications. Complications included one total flap loss (4 percent), three intraoperative arterial thromboses (13 percent), and two postoperative venous thromboses (8 percent). Univariate analysis illustrated a statistically significant association between prednisone and overall complication rate (p = 0.032). Conclusions Microvascular free tissue transfer is a challenge in immunosuppressed patients. Univariate analysis showed prednisone to correlate statistically with operative morbidity. Transplant patients receiving prednisone at the time of their elective free flap procedure will require additional care to lower the additional risk of delayed wound healing, partial flap loss, and anastomotic thrombosis. Clinical question/level of evidence Therapeutic IV.

BACKGROUND Preservation of the nipple-areolar complex with total skin-sparing mastectomy is becoming a popular mastectomy technique. As experience increases, the patient inclusion criteria for total skin sparing mastectomy expand. The authors assessed outcomes of total skin-sparing mastectomy and immediate prosthetic reconstruction in women with a prior history of augmentation mammaplasty. METHODS Between 2005 and 2012, all women with a history of augmentation mammaplasty and implants in place, undergoing total skin-sparing mastectomy and immediate prosthetic reconstruction, were prospectively tracked. Patient demographics, expander coverage type, adjuvant treatment, and incidence of complications were analyzed. Outcomes in these patients were compared with those of patients undergoing the same operation, without prior augmentation history. RESULTS Thirty-four women with prior augmentation underwent total skin-sparing mastectomy and immediate tissue expander placement on 51 breasts. Comparison to the nonaugmentation group showed similar rates of superficial nipple necrosis (0 percent, p=0.324), complete nipple necrosis (0 percent, p=0.324), and skin flap necrosis (4 percent, p=1.0). The prior augmentation group did have a higher rate of implant loss (10 percent, p=0.515), with all but one of these occurring in irradiated patients. CONCLUSIONS Total skin-sparing mastectomy and immediate prosthetic reconstruction is a safe technique in women with a history of augmentation mammaplasty. The preferred reconstructive technique is immediate submuscular tissue expander placement. In the setting of no radiation history, this operation carries a safety profile similar to that of patients without a history of prior augmentation, and can be offered safely. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Risk, II.

Perforator free flaps from the buttock serve as an alternative to abdominally based flaps in autologous breast reconstruction. Microsurgeons often opt to harvest tissue from the gluteal donor site because of a lack of abdominal volume and/or quality. The authors examined the experience of a single surgeon with the inferior gluteal artery perforator (IGAP) flap and provide a quantitative outcomes comparison with the deep inferior epigastric perforator (DIEP) flap.A retrospective review was performed of patients who underwent IGAP flap surgery for autologous breast reconstruction from August of 2005 to October of 2010 performed by a single surgeon (J.M.S.).Thirty-one inferior gluteal artery perforator flaps were performed on 24 patients. Mean follow-up time was 24.4 months (range, 6 to 65 months). The total flap loss rate was 6.5 percent, and the take-back rate was 13 percent (salvage rate, 75 percent). Vascular complication rates were as follows: intraoperative arterial thrombosis, 13 percent; intraoperative venous thrombosis, 3 percent; delayed arterial thrombosis, 3 percent; and delayed venous thrombosis, 13 percent. Nineteen percent of patients had sensory complaints at the donor site that persisted beyond 3 months postoperatively. In comparison to the DIEP flap, IGAP flaps had a higher rate of intraoperative arterial thrombosis (13 percent versus 2.6 percent, p = 0.024) and delayed venous thrombosis (13 percent versus 1.5 percent, p = 0.008).Review of the IGAP flap reveals some shortcomings of this flap even in the hands of an experienced microsurgeon. Surgeons should be aware of the difficulties and limitations when choosing this flap for reconstruction.

Complete submuscular tissue expander coverage affords the best protection against implant exposure but restricts lower pole expansion. Techniques using acellular dermis as a pectoralis muscle extension can allow for more rapid fill of the expander and better control of the inframammary fold. This study compares both techniques with regard to relevant outcomes.Results of 100 consecutive breast expander reconstructions performed by two surgeons between 2004 and 2007 were retrospectively reviewed. Patient demographics, expander coverage type, adjuvant treatment, length and characteristics of the expansion, and incidence and types of complications were analyzed.One hundred women underwent breast reconstruction with 172 expanders, in 50 using complete submuscular placement and in 50 using partial subpectoral placement with acellular dermis. The patient groups were similar in terms of demographic data. Mean number of fills to complete reconstruction was 4.31 in the submuscular group and 1.72 in the acellular dermis group (p = 0.0001). Mean intraoperative fill volume was 130 cc in the submuscular group, compared with 412 cc per expander in the acellular dermis group (p = 0.0001). Fisher's exact test demonstrated no significant difference in total complication rate between the two groups (14 percent versus 18 percent; p = 0.79).Acellular dermis allowed for a greater initial fill of saline. This potentially improves cosmetic outcome, as it better capitalizes on preserved mastectomy skin for reconstruction. The authors conclude that acellular dermis-assisted implant breast reconstruction has a safety profile no worse than that of complete submuscular coverage but offers the benefit of fewer expansions and the potential for more predictable secondary revisions.

Female plastic surgeons are well suited to make a personal choice regarding breast reconstruction options, based on their knowledge of the actual procedures and first-hand experience with results. The authors surveyed this group to elicit their personal views on various modalities of breast reconstruction and to ascertain which types of reconstruction they would choose if faced with such a decision.All board-certified female plastic surgeons in the United States and Canada were surveyed by means of e-mail. This survey included questions regarding basic demographic and practice data. Respondents were requested to rank desired methods of reconstruction for themselves and to cite reasons for these choices.A total of 435 surveys were sent: 350 were delivered (85 had invalid e-mail addresses), and 143 were returned (response rate, 41 percent). Overall, 66 percent of respondents chose implant-based reconstruction, 25 percent chose autologous reconstruction, and 9 percent chose no reconstruction. Respondents selecting autologous reconstruction cited cosmetic outcome as the most important factor considered in 47 percent of cases, compared with 14 percent of those choosing implant-based breast reconstruction (p = 0.0001). Invasiveness of the procedure/recovery time was cited as the most important factor by 83 percent of those surgeons opting for no breast reconstruction and by 51 percent of those choosing implant-based breast reconstruction (p = 0.0175).Board-certified female plastic surgeons exhibit a strong desire to pursue implant-based breast reconstruction over autologous reconstruction. When it was chosen, autologous reconstruction was felt to offer improved aesthetic outcomes. When making such a decision, patients can use female plastic surgeons as a resource for information, thus helping them to make an informed decision.

Background: In university hospitals, free tissue transfer has become a standard method of reconstruction for a broad spectrum of defects. Because of its complexity, free tissue transfer has not been routinely performed in a community hospital setting. This study reports the outcomes of two equal groups of free tissue transfer performed by the same surgeons, comparing the university versus the community hospital setting. Methods: A total of 735 free tissue transfers were performed at one university hospital and six community hospitals in our region over a 10-year study period. Outcome parameters used in this study included wound complications such as infection, dehiscence, delayed healing, hematoma, and fat necrosis. Results: A total of 674 operations were performed using 735 free tissue transfers: 386 free tissue transfers were performed at the university hospital (53 percent) and 349 (47 percent) were performed at the community hospital. Categories of free tissue transfer reconstruction included breast, lower extremity, head and neck, and upper extremity reconstructions. Most of the breast reconstructions were performed in the community hospital, whereas most of the lower extremity and head and neck reconstructions were performed at the university hospital. Fifty-one major postoperative complications occurred in the university hospital (14 percent), while 31 (10 percent) occurred in the community hospital. Complication rates did not differ significantly between settings; however, there was a trend toward more wound infections in the university hospital and more cases of fat necrosis in the community hospital, most likely reflected in the differing case mix between hospital settings. Conclusion: Free tissue transfer is an effective and practical method of reconstruction that has been safely performed in both university and community hospital settings.