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Background The use of a porous high-density polyethylene implant for ear reconstruction is gradually gaining acceptance because it allows for a pleasing ear reconstruction in young children before they enter school. In response to this growing interest, the authors decided to write an article clarifying in detail all the steps of this challenging procedure. In this article, the authors also answer all the common questions that surgeons have when they come to observe the operation, or when they go back to their respective practices and start performing this procedure. Methods The authors describe in detail the operative steps that allow for a successful ear reconstruction using porous high-density polyethylene. The key parts of this operation are to meticulously harvest a well-vascularized superficial temporoparietal fascia flap and to use appropriate color-matched skin grafts. Results This method allows for a pleasing ear reconstruction with excellent definition, projection, symmetry, and long-term viability. Conclusion The use of porous high-density polyethylene with a thin superficial temporoparietal fascia flap coverage is the authors' preferred method of ear reconstruction because it can be performed at an earlier age, in a single stage, as an outpatient procedure, and with minimal discomfort and psychological trauma for the patients and parents.

Background Craniofacial microsomia encompasses a spectrum of diagnoses associated with variable degrees of mandibular hypoplasia, facial asymmetry, chin deviation, occlusal abnormalities, and potential airway compromise. This study presents one surgeon's experience with costochondral rib grafting for mandibular reconstruction in children with Pruzansky/Kaban type 2B and type 3 mandibular hypoplasia. Methods An institutional review board-approved retrospective chart review was performed of all patients with craniofacial microsomia who underwent costochondral rib grafting for mandibular reconstruction performed by the senior author (S.P.B.) at The Children's Hospital of Philadelphia from January of 1998 to September of 2013. Demographic information, surgical history, operative details, postoperative complications, and outcomes were recorded. Plain radiographs and preoperative and postoperative three-dimensional computed tomographic scans were reviewed. Results Two hundred fifty-five patients were diagnosed with craniofacial microsomia, and 22 patients met inclusion criteria. Twelve boys and 10 girls underwent grafting at an average age of 7.2 years. Thirty-three costochondral rib grafts were performed, 11 unilateral reconstructions and 11 bilateral reconstructions. Twelve hemimandibles were type 2B and 21 were type 3. No intraoperative complications were reported, and no incidence of graft resorption was noted. No additional procedures were required in 27 reconstructed hemimandibles (81.8 percent), whereas six (18.2 percent) required secondary distraction osteogenesis. Only one patient developed postoperative ankylosis. No malunion or nonunion was noted. Conclusion The approach described in this article allowed the authors to obtain reliably good results with costochondral rib grafting for type 2B and type 3 mandibular hypoplasia associated with craniofacial microsomia. Clinical question/level of evidence Therapeutic, IV.

After reading this article, the participant should be able to: 1. Understand the craniofacial dysmorphology associated with nonsyndromic craniosynostosis. 2. Understand the functional concerns and preoperative considerations when treating patients with nonsyndromic craniosynostosis. 3. Understand the various treatment options available to address patients with nonsyndromic craniosynostosis. 4. Recognize the current debate with regard to timing and type of surgical intervention, and their impact on patient outcome, for patients with nonsyndromic craniosynostosis.Craniosynostosis is a pathologic condition associated with the premature fusion of one or more cranial sutures. When the cranial sutures fuse prematurely, the skull and the growing brain beneath the suture are restricted, leading to a compensatory expansion into regions of the skull that are not affected. Craniosynostosis can occur in isolation (nonsyndromic) or can be associated with other extracranial anomalies. When anomalies outside the skull are present, craniosynostosis is often part of a syndrome and usually involves multiple sutures (syndromic craniosynostosis). This article focuses on nonsyndromic craniosynostosis, and describes the current state of knowledge regarding its diagnosis, surgical management, and outcomes.

Background: The purpose of this study was to identify variables that may preoperatively predict successful outcomes in ambulatory cleft lip repair and to quantify the potential cost savings. Methods: A retrospective chart review of all patients who underwent cleft lip repair at a tertiary cleft care center from January of 2010 to May of 2013 was performed. Because inpatient stay is the authors’ current practice, overnight desaturations, poor oral intake, and failure to stop intravenous narcotics during the first day were considered indicators of a poor candidate. Charge data were also collected. Results: Twenty-nine of 111 patients were deemed likely to fail ambulatory surgery. American Society of Anesthesiologists score greater than 2 (p = 0.019), low birth weight (p = 0.022), bilateral cleft lip–cleft palate (p = 0.003), central nervous system or neurologic diagnosis (p = 0.046), syndromic and/or multiple congenital abnormalities (p = 0.024), prior emergency room visits (p = 0.021), failure to thrive (p = 0.046), and age older than 7 months (p = 0.028) were associated with poor candidacy. A diagnosis of cleft lip was protective (p = 0.015). Fifty-five patients had no risk factors for a poor ambulatory outcome and did not stay more than 1 day. The average savings per patient who met the authors’ criteria was $4261. Conclusions: The authors found that 49.5 percent of children may be safely eligible for ambulatory cleft lip repair. Patients with risk factors may be best served by a short hospital admission. This would lead to a national savings of $8,765,183 per year.

Distraction osteogenesis is an effective technique for elongating the deficient mandible. The authors specifically evaluated its effectiveness in the treatment of airway obstruction in pediatric patients with mandibular hypoplasia.A comprehensive literature review of the National Library of Medicine (PubMed) database was performed. English-language studies involving isolated distraction of the pediatric mandible (younger than 18 years) with descriptive reporting of airway changes were included. Extracted data included demographics, initial diagnosis, distractor type, distraction protocol, predistraction and postdistraction airway status, and complications.Seventy-four articles met the inclusion criteria, resulting in 711 patients with craniofacial abnormalities who underwent mandibular distraction osteogenesis. Mean age at the time of distraction was 18.1 months. The most common diagnoses were isolated Pierre Robin sequence (52.9 percent), syndromic Pierre Robin sequence (7 percent), and Treacher Collins syndrome (6.8 percent). Mandibular distraction osteogenesis successfully treated airway obstruction in 89.3 percent of cases. Success was defined as either decannulation of tracheostomy, avoidance of tracheostomy or continuous positive airway pressure, or alleviation or significant improvement of obstructive sleep apnea symptoms. One hundred seventy-one (84.2 percent) of the 203 tracheostomy-dependent patients were successfully decannulated. Among the 181 patients with obstructive sleep apnea, mandibular distraction osteogenesis successfully allowed for either complete resolution or significant improvement of symptoms in 95.6 percent. A 23.8 percent overall complication rate was noted. The mean follow-up time was 28.7 months.In addition to its positive effect on facial appearance, mandibular distraction osteogenesis is an effective procedure for the treatment of airway obstruction associated with congenital craniofacial defects involving mandibular hypoplasia in appropriately selected patients.

Background The aim of this study was to evaluate the efficacy, safety profile, and complications associated with mandibular distraction osteogenesis performed in infants weighing less than 4 kg with Robin sequence. Methods An 11-year retrospective review of all infants (younger than 6 months) with mandibular distraction osteogenesis-treated Robin sequence was performed. Patients weighing less than 4 kg (experimental) and 4 kg or more (control) who underwent mandibular distraction osteogenesis were compared. Demographics, medical comorbidities, improvement in apnea/hypopnea index, need for tracheostomy, repeated distraction, and complications were evaluated. Results One hundred twenty-one patients underwent mandibular distraction osteogenesis. Eighty-one patients weighed less than 4 kg and 40 weighed 4 kg or more. The mean follow-up was 2.8 years in patients weighing less than 4 kg and 3.0 years in the control group. Mean age and weight at the time of distraction were 23 days and 3.1 kg, respectively, in the study group; and 2.7 years and 11 kg, respectively, in the control group. There was no significant difference in success of mandibular distraction osteogenesis to treat airway obstruction in the group weighing less than 4 kg compared with the control group (92.6 percent versus 88.9 percent; p = 0.49). The most common complication in each group was surgical-site infection (9.9 percent and 20.0 percent; p = 0.15). Overall complication rates were similar between the two groups (17.3 percent versus 25.0 percent; p = 0.34). The rates of repeated distraction were similar between the two groups (6.3 percent and 13.5 percent; p = 0.28). Conclusions Mandibular distraction osteogenesis is a safe and effective treatment modality for infants weighing less than 4 kg with severe airway obstruction. The efficacy, safety, and complication profiles are not significantly different from those of larger patients. Clinical question/level of evidence Therapeutic, III.

Background This study reports long-term aesthetic outcomes with fronto-orbital advancement and cranial vault remodeling in treating unicoronal synostosis over a 35-year period. Methods Retrospective review was performed on patients with isolated unicoronal synostosis from 1977 to 2012. Demographic, preoperative phenotypic, and long-term aesthetic outcomes data were analyzed with chi-squared and Fisher's exact test for categorical data and Wilcoxon rank-sum and Kruskal-Wallis rank for continuous data. Results A total of 238 patients were treated; 207 met inclusion criteria. None underwent secondary intervention for intracranial pressure. At definitive intervention, there 96 (55 percent) Whitaker class I patients, 11 (6 percent) class II, 62 (35 percent) class III, and six (3 percent) class IV. Nasal root deviation and occipital bossing each conferred an increased risk of Whitaker class III/IV [OR, 4.4 (1.4 to 13.9), p = 0.011; OR, 2.6 (1.0 to 6.8), p = 0.049]. Patients who underwent bilateral cranial vault remodeling with extended unilateral bandeau were less likely Whitaker class III/IV at latest follow-up compared with those undergoing strictly unilateral procedures [OR, 0.2 (0.1 to 0.7), p = 0.011]. Overcorrection resulted in decreased risk of temporal hollowing [OR, 0.3 (0.1 to 1.0), p = 0.05]. Patients with 5 years or more of follow-up were more likely to develop supraorbital retrusion [OR, 7.2 (2.2 to 23.4), p = 0.001] and temporal hollowing [OR, 3.7 (1.5 to 9.6), p = 0.006] and have Whitaker class III/IV outcomes [OR, 4.9 (1.8 to 12.8), p = 0.001]. Conclusion Traditional fronto-orbital advancement and cranial vault remodeling appears to mitigate risk of intracranial pressure but may lead to aesthetic shortcomings as patients mature, namely fronto-orbital retrusion and temporal hollowing. Clinical question/level of evidence Therapeutic, IV.

BACKGROUND The OMENS+ classification is commonly used to describe the phenotypically diverse craniofacial features of craniofacial microsomia. The purpose of this study was to evaluate associations among the individual components of the OMENS+ criteria. METHODS An institutional review board-approved retrospective chart review was performed for patients who presented with a diagnosis of unilateral or bilateral craniofacial microsomia to the craniofacial clinic from January of 1990 to December of 2012. Demographic, diagnosis, classification, treatment, and radiographic data were abstracted for all patients who met inclusion criteria. Associations and correlations were evaluated using the Spearman rank test and a logistic regression model. RESULTS One hundred five patients (61 male and 44 female) with craniofacial microsomia met inclusion criteria. Eighty-one patients (77.1 percent) had unilateral microsomia and 24 (22.9 percent) had bilateral microsomia. Twenty-eight patients (26.7 percent) had macrostomia. Correlations were all significantly interrelated (p = 0.000 to p = 00.018) between the degree of orbital, mandibular, and soft-tissue deformities. Moreover, the severity of ear deformity and facial nerve involvement were also significantly correlated (p = 0.008). Between these two groupings, there was a significant correlation between soft-tissue deficiency and nerve involvement (p = 0.010). Macrostomia was associated with the individual components of the group orbit (p = 0.008), mandible (p = 0.000), and soft tissue (p = 0.005). CONCLUSIONS The association between structures using the OMENS+ classification may be caused by their branchial arch origin. Structures mainly developed from the first branchial arch (orbit, mandible, and soft tissue) are associated in degree of severity, as are the structures mainly derived from the second branchial arch (facial nerve and ear). CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Risk, III.

Unplanned surgical readmissions represent a benchmark outcome and pose a considerable cost burden for health care systems. The authors evaluated risk factors associated with readmission following pediatric plastic surgery using a prospective, validated, national database.Patients younger than 18 years who underwent primary pediatric plastic surgery procedures were identified from the 2013 pediatric American College of Surgeons National Surgical Quality Improvement Program database.Two cohorts were compared: patients who experienced readmission and those who did not. Patient characteristics, comorbidities, intraoperative details,and 30-day postoperative outcomes, including complications and readmissions,were analyzed. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was used to identify factors associated with readmission.A total of 5376 patients were included, for an overall 2.40 percent readmission rate. The study cohort was, on average, 5.47 ± 5.21 years old,51.60 percent (n = 2774) were male, and 65.92 percent of cases (n = 3544)were outpatient procedures. The average number of relative value units per case was 10.15 ± 8.01. Patients with medical comorbidities (p0.001) and those with a preoperatively contaminated or infected wound were at higher risk for readmission (p0.001). Patients with higher American Society of Anesthesiologists scores (p0.001), longer operative times (p0.001), and longer hospitalizations (p0.0171) were also independently at greater risk for readmission. The most significant independent predictors of readmission were postoperative surgical and medical complications (OR, 6.94 and 11.92,respectively; p0.001).These results help target patients at greater risk for readmission and afford an opportunity to provide evidence-based interventions to mitigate risk and minimize cost burden for health care systems. (Plast. Reconstr. Surg.135: 521, 2015.)Risk, III.

BACKGROUND For cleft teams that use nasoalveolar molding for presurgical treatment of cleft lips, the determination of desired cleft-nasal height correction is a subjective assessment. The latter, however, is complicated by a noncleft nasal height that itself is depressed by the shifted nasal pyramid native to the deformity. The authors introduce a simple formula based on the Pythagorean theorem to estimate the corrected height of the nose as an objective guide for the endpoint of nasoalveolar molding therapy. METHODS Nasal impressions of 20 consecutive patients with unilateral cleft lips who underwent nasoalveolar molding therapy were analyzed. Using identified landmarks on pre-nasoalveolar molding impressions, the Montreal Children's Hospital formula was used to estimate the corrected height of the noncleft nostril (ideal corrected nasal height) as measured on the impressions after nasoalveolar molding therapy had verticalized the nasal pyramid. Statistical analysis was performed using the Pearson correlation test to determine the predictive value of the formula. RESULTS Twenty patients were included in the study. Analysis demonstrated a statistically significant positive correlation (high degree) between predicted nasal heights (ideal corrected nasal height) and those measured following completion of nasoalveolar molding therapy (r = 0.760, p < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS The Montreal Children's Hospital formula may serve as a useful tool to predict the corrected nasal height (ideal corrected nasal height) as a benchmark for cleft side nasal correction with nasoalveolar molding. The authors hope it will provide cleft teams, especially those beginning to use nasoalveolar molding, with an objective measure to guide nasoalveolar molding treatment.

While there is a clear correlation between unilateral coronal synostosis (UCS) and ocular motility abnormalities, the literature provides little information as to the true epidemiology of strabismus, or the underlying etiology of these paralleled pathologies. The purpose of this study is to investigate the rate of oculomotor abnormalities associated with UCS and its management.A retrospective review of all patients identified to have single-suture, nonsyndromic UCS treated by fronto-orbital advancement at a tertiary craniofacial referral center from 1977 to 2013 was performed. Inclusion criteria mandated complete medical, surgical, and ophthalmological records. Patients were evaluated for strabismus both preoperatively and postoperatively, and as to whether eye muscle surgery was performed.A total of 181 patients underwent treatment for UCS at our institution during the study period, of which 79 met the inclusion criteria. Twenty-nine patients had strabismus prior to any craniofacial surgical intervention. Following fronto-orbital advancement, 23 patients (46 %) developed a new onset strabismus. Fifty-five patients had no change in their preoperative ocular examination, and one patient had resolution of preoperative strabismus. Of the 51 patients who had postoperative strabismus, 30 went on to have eye muscle surgery. There were no statistically significant differences in gender (p=0.477), race (p=0.395), sidedness of suture involvement (p=0.552), or age at intervention (p=0.66) in comparing the group with new postoperative strabismus and those without.This study sheds new light on the prevalence of strabismus in UCS, and more importantly, the risk of developing strabismus in the setting of conventional fronto-orbital advancement. This data will allow more accurate preoperative counseling and reinforces the important role of ophthalmologists as members of the multidisciplinary craniofacial team.