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Oncolytic virus (OV) is a replication competent virus that selectively invades cancer cells; as these cells die under the viral burden, the released virus particles proceed to infect other cancer cells. Oncolytic viruses are designed to also be able to stimulate the anticancer immune response. Thus, one may represent an OV by two parameters: its replication potential and its immunogenicity. In this paper we consider a combination therapy with OV and a checkpoint inhibitor, anti-PD-1. We evaluate the efficacy of the combination therapy in terms of the tumor volume at some later time, for example, 6 months from initial treatment. Since T cells kill not only virus-free cancer cells but also virus-infected cancer cells, the following question arises: Does increasing the amount of the checkpoint inhibitor always improve the efficacy? We address this question, by a mathematical model consisting of a system of partial differential equations. We use the model to construct, by simulations, an efficacy map in terms of the doses of the checkpoint inhibitor and the OV injection. We show that there are regions in the map where an increase in the checkpoint inhibitor actually decreases the efficacy of the treatment. We also construct efficacy maps with checkpoint inhibitor vs. the replication potential of the virus that show the same antagonism, namely, an increase in the checkpoint inhibitor may actually decrease the efficacy. These results have implications for clinical trials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cross-presentation of apoptotic cell associated antigens by immature dendritic cells prevents the activation of self reactive CD8 T cells. Tolerized self reactive CD8 T cells down-regulate IL-7R expression on their surface. Whether over-expression of IL-7R can reverse their fate and function has not been examined. In this paper, we showed forced expression of IL-7R in OT-I T cells by a transgene enhanced CD8 T cell mediated diabetes in the RIP-mOVA model. Although IL-7R Tg (transgenic) did not completely reverse the deletion of OT-I T cells, it provided a significant survival advantage over w.t OT-I T cells. Furthermore, IL7R Tg OT-I T cells isolated from diabetic pancreata displayed increased production of IFN-γ, higher expression of T-bet, and increased externalization of CD107a. We also found that immature DCs containing apoptotic cells expressed high levels of PDL-1 on their surface. Although IL-7R Tg did not change PD1 expression on activated OT-I cells in vivo, the transgene enabled a significantly lower number of OT-I T cells to induce diabetes in the absence of PDL-1. Our results demonstrated that forced expression of IL-7R not only improved the functionality of tolerized CD8 T cells, it also acted in synergy with PDL-1 deficiency to further promote CD8 T cell cytotoxicity to self antigens. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper we consider a combination therapy of cancer. One drug is a vaccine which activates dendritic cells so that they induce more T cells to infiltrate the tumor. The other drug is a checkpoint inhibitor, which enables the T cells to remain active against the cancer cells. The two drugs are positively correlated in the sense that an increase in the amount of each drug results in a reduction in the tumor volume. We consider the question whether a treatment with combination of the two drugs at certain levels is preferable to a treatment by one of the drugs alone at ‘roughly’ twice the dosage level; if that is the case, then we say that there is a positive ‘synergy’ for this combination of dosages. To address this question, we develop a mathematical model using a system of partial differential equations. The variables include dendritic and cancer cells, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, IL-12 and IL-2, GM-CSF produced by the vaccine, and a T cell checkpoint inhibitor associated with PD-1. We use the model to explore the efficacy of the two drugs, separately and in combination, and compare the simulations with data from mouse experiments. We next introduce the concept of synergy between the drugs and develop a synergy map which suggests in what proportion to administer the drugs in order to achieve the maximum reduction of tumor volume under the constraint of maximum tolerated dose. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Experimental and mathematical studies in immunology have revealed that the dynamics of the programmed T cell response to vigorous infection can be conveniently modelled using a sigmoidal or a discontinuous immune response function. This paper hypothesizes strong synergies between this existing work and the dynamical behaviour of engineering systems with a variable structure control (VSC) law. These findings motivate the interpretation of the immune system as a variable structure control system. It is shown that dynamical properties as well as conditions to analytically assess the transition from health to disease can be developed for the specific T cell response from the theory of variable structure control. In particular, it is shown that the robustness properties of the specific T cell response as observed in experiments can be explained analytically using a VSC perspective. Further, the predictive capacity of the VSC framework to determine the T cell help required to overcome chronic Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus (LCMV) infection is demonstrated. The findings demonstrate that studying the immune system using variable structure control theory provides a new framework for evaluating immunological dynamics and experimental observations. A modelling and simulation tool results with predictive capacity to determine how to modify the immune response to achieve healthy outcomes which may have application in drug development and vaccine design. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New cytometric techniques continue to push the boundaries of multi-parameter quantitative data acquisition at the single-cell level particularly in immunology and medicine. Sophisticated analysis methods for such ever higher dimensional datasets are rapidly emerging, with advanced data representations and dimensional reduction approaches. However, these are not yet standardized and clinical scientists and cell biologists are not yet experienced in their interpretation. More fundamentally their range of statistical validity is not yet fully established. We therefore propose a new method for the automated and unbiased analysis of high-dimensional single cell datasets that is simple and robust, with the goal of reducing this complex information into a familiar 2D scatter plot representation that is of immediate utility to a range of biomedical and clinical settings. Using publicly available flow cytometry and mass cytometry datasets we demonstrate that this method (termed CytoBinning), recapitulates the results of traditional manual cytometric analyses and leads to new and testable hypotheses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The TPases of the munity-ssociated roteins (GIMAP) GTPases are a family of proteins expressed strongly in the adaptive immune system. We have previously reported that in human cells one member of this family, GIMAP6, interacts with the ATG8 family member GABARAPL2, and is recruited to autophagosomes upon starvation, suggesting a role for GIMAP6 in the autophagic process. To study this possibility and the function of GIMAP6 in the immune system, we have established a mouse line in which the Gimap6 gene can be inactivated by Cre-mediated recombination. In mice bred to carry the CD2Cre transgene such that the Gimap6 gene was deleted within the T and B cell lineages there was a 50–70% reduction in peripheral CD4+ and CD8+ T cells. Analysis of splenocyte-derived proteins from these mice indicated increased levels of MAP1LC3B, particularly the lipidated LC3-II form, and S405-phosphorylation of SQSTM1. Electron microscopic measurements of Gimap6-/- CD4+ T cells indicated an increased mitochondrial/cytoplasmic volume ratio and increased numbers of autophagosomes. These results are consistent with autophagic disruption in the cells. However, Gimap6-/- T cells were largely normal in character, could be effectively activated in vitro and supported T cell-dependent antibody production. Treatment in vitro of CD4+ splenocytes from GIMAP6fl/flERT2Cre mice with 4-hydroxytamoxifen resulted in the disappearance of GIMAP6 within five days. In parallel, increased phosphorylation of SQSTM1 and TBK1 was observed. These results indicate a requirement for GIMAP6 in the maintenance of a normal peripheral adaptive immune system and a significant role for the protein in normal autophagic processes. Moreover, as GIMAP6 is expressed in a cell-selective manner, this indicates the potential existence of a cell-restricted mode of autophagic regulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A growing understanding of the molecular interactions between immune effector cells and target tumor cells, coupled with refined gene therapy approaches, are giving rise to novel cancer immunotherapeutics with remarkable efficacy in the clinic against both solid and liquid tumors. While immunotherapy holds tremendous promise for treatment of certain cancers, significant challenges remain in the clinical translation to many other types of cancers and also in minimizing adverse effects. Therefore, there is an urgent need for functional potency assays, in vitro and in vivo, that could model the complex interaction of immune cells with tumor cells and can be used to rapidly test the efficacy of different immunotherapy approaches, whether it is small molecule, biologics, cell therapies or combinations thereof. Herein we report the development of an xCELLigence real-time cytolytic in vitro potency assay that uses cellular impedance to continuously monitor the viability of target tumor cells while they are being subjected to different types of treatments. Specialized microtiter plates containing integrated gold microelectrodes enable the number, size, and surface attachment strength of adherent target tumor cells to be selectively monitored within a heterogeneous mixture that includes effector cells, antibodies, small molecules, etc. Through surface-tethering approach, the killing of liquid cancers can also be monitored. Using NK92 effector cells as example, results from RTCA potency assay are very well correlated with end point data from image-based assays as well as flow cytometry. Several effector cells, i.e., PBMC, NK, CAR-T were tested and validated as well as biological molecules such as Bi-specific T cell Engagers (BiTEs) targeting the EpCAM protein expressed on tumor cells and blocking antibodies against the immune checkpoint inhibitor PD-1. Using the specifically designed xCELLigence immunotherapy software, quantitative parameters such as KT50 (the amount of time it takes to kill 50% of the target tumor cells) and % cytolysis are calculated and used for comparing the relative efficacy of different reagents. In summary, our results demonstrate the xCELLigence platform to be well suited for potency assays, providing quantitative assessment with high reproducibility and a greatly simplified work flow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway regulates many key cellular processes such as differentiation, apoptosis, and survival. The final proteins in this pathway, ERK1/2, are regulated by dual specificity phosphatase 5 (DUSP5). DUSP5 is a nuclear, inducible phosphatase with high affinity and fidelity for ERK1/2. By regulating the final step in the MAPK signaling cascade, DUSP5 exerts strong regulatory control over a central cellular pathway. Like other DUSPs, DUSP5 plays an important role in immune function. In this study, we have utilized new knockout mouse reagents to explore its function further. We demonstrate that global loss of DUSP5 does not result in any gross phenotypic changes. However, loss of DUSP5 affects memory/effector CD8+ T cell populations in response to acute viral infection. Specifically, Dusp5-/- mice have decreased proportions of short-lived effector cells (SLECs) and increased proportions of memory precursor effector cells (MPECs) in response to infection. Further, we show that this phenotype is T cell intrinsic; a bone marrow chimera model restricting loss of DUSP5 to the CD8+ T cell compartment displays a similar phenotype. Dusp5-/- T cells also display increased proliferation, increased apoptosis, and altered metabolic profiles, suggesting that DUSP5 is a pro-survival protein in T cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The non-classical MHC I paralogue HLA-G is expressed by cytotrophoblast cells and implicated with fetomaternal tolerance by downregulating the maternal adaptive and innate immune response against the fetus. HLA-G expression correlates with favorable graft outcome in humans and recently promising immunosuppressive effects of therapeutic HLA-G in experimental transplantation (skin allograft acceptance) were shown. Consequently, we examined this novel therapeutic approach in solid organ transplantation. In this study, therapeutic recombinant HLA-G5 was evaluated for the first time in a solid organ model of acute rejection (ACR) after orthotopic intestinal transplantation (ITX). Allogenic ITX was performed in rats (Brown Norway to Lewis) with and without HLA-G treatment. It was found that HLA-G treatment significantly reduced histologically proven ACR at both an early and late postoperative timepoint (POD 4/7), concomitant to a functionally preserved graft contractility at POD 7. Interestingly, graft infiltration by myeloperoxidase+ cells was significantly reduced at POD7 by HLA-G treatment. Moreover, HLA-G treatment showed an effect on the allogenic T-cell immune response as assessed by flow cytometry: The influx of recipient-derived CD8+ T-cells into the graft mesenteric lymphnodes at POD7 was significantly reduced while CD4+ populations were not affected. As a potential mechanism of action, an induction of T-reg populations in the mesenteric lymphnodes was postulated, but flow cytometric analysis of classical CD4+/CD25+/FoxP3+Treg-cells showed no significant alteration by HLA-G treatment. The novel therapeutic approach using recombinant HLA-G5 reported herein demonstrates a significant immunosuppressive effect in this model of allogenic experimental intestinal transplantation. This effect may be mediated via inhibition of recipient-derived CD8+ T-cell populations either directly or by induction of non-classical Treg populations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aberrant turnover of memory CD4+ T-cells is central to Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) progression. Understanding the relationship between the turnover of CD4+ subsets and immunological homeostasis during simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection in natural hosts may provide insight into mechanisms of immune regulation that may serve as models for therapeutic intervention in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-infected persons. Sooty mangabeys (SMs) have naturally evolved with SIV to avoid AIDS progression while maintaining healthy peripheral CD4+ T-cell counts and thus represent a model by which therapeutic interventions for AIDS progression might be elucidated. To assess the relationship between the turnover of CD4+ subsets and immunological homeostasis during SIV infection in non-progressive hosts, we treated 6 SIV-uninfected and 9 SIV-infected SMs with 2’-bromo-5’-deoxyuridine (BrdU) for 14 days and longitudinally assessed CD4+ T-cell subset turnover by polychromatic flow cytometry. We observed that, in SIV-infected SMs, turnover of CD4+ T-cell naïve and central, transitional, and effector memory subsets is comparable to that in uninfected animals. Comparable turnover of CD4+ T-cell subsets irrespective of SIV-infection status likely contributes to the lack of aberrant immune activation and disease progression observed after infection in non-progressive hosts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To improve cancer immunotherapy, it is important to understand how tumor cells counteract immune-surveillance. In this study, we sought to identify cell-surface molecules associated with resistance of leukemia cells to cytotoxic T cell (CTL)-mediated cytolysis. To this end, we first established thousands of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that react with MLL/AF9 mouse leukemia cells. Only two of these mAbs, designated R54 and B2, bound preferentially to leukemia cells resistant to cytolysis by a tumor cell antigen–specific CTLs. The antigens recognized by these mAbs were identified by expression cloning as the same protein, CD43, although their binding patterns to subsets of hematopoietic cells differed significantly from each other and from a pre-existing pan-CD43 mAb, S11. The epitopes of R54 and B2, but not S11, were sialidase-sensitive and expressed at various levels on leukemia cells, suggesting that binding of R54 or B2 is associated with the glycosylation status of CD43. R54high leukemia cells, which are likely to express sialic acid-rich CD43, were highly resistant to CTL-mediated cytolysis. In addition, loss of CD43 in leukemia cells or neuraminidase treatment of leukemia cells sensitized leukemia cells to CTL-mediated cell lysis. These results suggest that sialic acid-rich CD43, which harbors multiple sialic acid residues that impart a net negative surface charge, protects leukemia cells from CTL-mediated cell lysis. Furthermore, R54high or B2high leukemia cells preferentially survived in vivo in the presence of adaptive immunity. Taken together, these results suggest that the glycosylation status of CD43 on leukemia is associated with sensitivity to CTL-mediated cytolysis in vitro and in vivo. Thus, regulation of CD43 glycosylation is a potential strategy for enhancing CTL-mediated immunotherapy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Naive T cells in untreated HIV-1 infected individuals have a reduced T-cell receptor excision circle (TREC) content. Previous mathematical models have suggested that this is due to increased naive T-cell division. It remains unclear, however, how reduced naive TREC contents can be reconciled with a gradual loss of naive T cells in HIV-1 infection. We performed longitudinal analyses in humans before and after HIV-1 seroconversion, and used a mathematical model to investigate which processes could explain the observed changes in naive T-cell numbers and TRECs during untreated HIV-1 disease progression. Both CD4+ and CD8+ naive T-cell TREC contents declined biphasically, with a rapid loss during the first year and a much slower loss during the chronic phase of infection. While naive CD8+ T-cell numbers hardly changed during follow-up, naive CD4+ T-cell counts continually declined. We show that a fine balance between increased T-cell division and loss in the peripheral naive T-cell pool can explain the observed short- and long-term changes in TRECs and naive T-cell numbers, especially if T-cell turnover during the acute phase is more increased than during the chronic phase of infection. Loss of thymic output, on the other hand, does not help to explain the biphasic loss of TRECs in HIV infection. The observed longitudinal changes in TRECs and naive T-cell numbers in HIV-infected individuals are most likely explained by a tight balance between increased T-cell division and death, suggesting that these changes are intrinsically linked in HIV infection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While a plethora of data describes the essential role of systemic CD8+ T cells in the control of SIV replication little is known about the local in situ CD8+ T cell immune responses against SIV at the intact tissue level, due to technical limitations. In situ staining, using GagCM9 Qdot 655 multimers, were here combined with laser capture microdissection to detect and collect SIV Gag CM9 specific CD8+ T cells in lymph node tissue from SIV infected rhesus macaques. CD8+ T cells from SIV infected and uninfected rhesus macaques were also collected and compared to the SIV GagCM9 specific CD8+ T cells. Illumina bead array and transcriptional analyses were used to assess the transcriptional profiles and the three different CD8+ T cell populations displayed unique transcriptional patterns. This pilot study demonstrates that rapid and specific immunostaining combined with laser capture microdissection in concert with transcriptional profiling may be used to elucidate phenotypic differences between CD8+ T cells in SIV infection. Such technologies may be useful to determine differences in functional activities of HIV/SIV specific T cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: CD8+ T cells (Cytotoxic T cells, Tc) are known to play a critical role in the pathogenesis of smoking related airway inflammation including chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). However, how cigarette smoke directly impacts systematic CD8+ T cell and regulatory T cell (Treg) subsets, especially by modulating muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (MRs), has yet to be well elucidated. Methods: Circulating CD8+ Tc/Tregs in healthy nonsmokers (n = 15), healthy smokers (n = 15) and COPD patients (n = 18) were evaluated by flow cytometry after incubating with anti-CD3, anti-CD8, anti-CD25, anti-Foxp3 antibodies. Peripheral blood T cells (PBT cells) from healthy nonsmokers were cultured in the presence of cigarette smoke extract (CSE) alone or combined with MRs agonist/antagonist for 5 days. Proliferation and apoptosis were evaluated by flow cytometry using Ki-67/Annexin-V antibodies to measure the effects of CSE on the survival of CD8+ Tc/Tregs. Results: While COPD patients have elevated circulating percentage of CD8+ T cells, healthy smokers have higher frequency of CD8+ Tregs. Elevated percentages of CD8+ T cells correlated inversely with declined FEV1 in COPD. CSE promoted the proliferation and inhibited the apoptosis of CD8+ T cells, while facilitated both the proliferation and apoptosis of CD8+ Tregs. Notably, the effects of CSE on CD8+ Tc/Tregs can be mostly simulated or attenuated by muscarine and atropine, the MR agonist and antagonist, respectively. However, neither muscarine nor atropine influenced the apoptosis of CD8+ Tregs. Conclusion: The results imply that cigarette smoking likely facilitates a proinflammatory state in smokers, which is partially mediated by MR dysfunction. The MR antagonist may be a beneficial drug candidate for cigarette smoke-induced chronic airway inflammation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]