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Background Understanding mosquito biting behaviours is important for designing and evaluating protection methods against nuisance biting and mosquito-borne diseases (e.g. dengue, malaria and zika). We investigated the preferred biting sites by Aedes aegypti and Anopheles arabiensis on adult volunteers in standing or sleeping positions; and estimated the theoretical protection limits affordable from protective clothing or repellent-treated footwear. Methods Adult volunteers dressed in shorts and t-shirts were exposed to infection-free laboratory-reared mosquitoes inside screened chambers from 6am to noon (for day-biting Ae. aegypti) or 6pm to midnight (night-biting An. arabiensis). Attempted bites on different body parts were recorded. Comparative observations were made on same volunteers while wearing sandals treated with transfluthrin, a vapour-phase pyrethroid that kills and repels mosquitoes. Results An. arabiensis bites were mainly on the lower limbs of standing volunteers (95.9% of bites below the knees) but evenly-distributed over all exposed body surfaces when the volunteers were on sleeping positions (only 28.8% bites below knees). Ae. aegypti bites were slightly concentrated on lower limbs of standing volunteers (47.7% below knees), but evenly-distributed on sleeping volunteers (23.3% below knees). Wearing protective clothing that leave only hands and head uncovered (e.g. socks + trousers + long-sleeved shirts) could theoretically prevent 78–83% of bites during sleeping, and at least 90% of bites during non-sleeping hours. If the feet are also exposed, protection declines to as low as 36.3% against Anopheles. The experiments showed that transfluthrin-treated sandals reduced An. arabiensis by 54–86% and Ae. aegypti by 32–39%, but did not change overall distributions of bites. Conclusion Biting by An. arabiensis and Ae. aegypti occur mainly on the lower limbs, though this proclivity is less pronounced in the Aedes species. However, when hosts are on sleeping positions, biting by both species is more evenly-distributed over the exposed body surfaces. High personal protection might be achieved by simply wearing long-sleeved clothing, though protection against Anopheles particularly requires covering of feet and lower legs. The transfluthrin-treated footwear can reduce biting risk, especially by An. arabiensis. These findings could inform the design and use of personal protection tools (both insecticidal and non-insecticidal) against mosquitoes and mosquito-borne diseases.

Loops are a rich source of parallelism. Unfortunately, many loops cannot be safely parallelized at compile time because the compiler is not able to guarantee that there will be no dependence violations. Thread-Level Speculation (TLS) techniques, either hardware or software-based, allow the parallel execution of non-analyzable loops, issuing the execution of blocks of consecutive iterations (called chunks) while a hardware or software monitor ensures that no dependence violations arise. If such a dependence violation occurs, the chunk that was fed with incorrect values is discarded and re-started, in order to consume the correct information. In the speculative execution of non-analyzable loops, it is very important to correctly choose the chunk size, because this choice dramatically affects the performance of the parallel execution. Bigger chunks imply less scheduling overheads, but smaller chunks allow fewer calculations to be discarded in the event of a dependence violation. To find a good chunk size is not a simple task, because loops may present dependencies that cannot be detected at compile time. In this paper, we present a comprehensive evaluation of different scheduling methods to estimate the optimal chunk size in the speculative execution of non-analyzable loops. This evaluation ranges from the simple, classical methods originally devised to achieve load balancing in loops with no dependencies, to methods that make some assumptions on the distribution pattern of dependencies, such as Meseta and Just-in-Time scheduling. We also propose and evaluate a general, more complex method called Moody Scheduling, that does not require a-priori assumptions to achieve the highest performance.

The mosquito Aedes aegypti is the main vector of arboviroses and current approaches to control this vector are not sufficiently effective. Adult traps, such as the BG-Sentinel (BGS), have been successfully used for mosquito surveillance and can also suppress vector populations. A new "passive" trap for gravid Ae. aegypti (Gravid Aedes Trap-GAT) has been shown efficient for Aedes collection and suppress Ae. albopictus populations using mass trapping techniques. Here the GAT was evaluated for the first time as a new tool to control Ae. aegypti in semi-field conditions using simulated outdoor environments (SOE). Two identical large screened chambers inside of a SOE containing different numbers and sizes of artificial breeding sites were used to assess the trapping efficiency of the GAT. One hundred mosquitoes were released into the chambers, and recapture rates evaluated after 48h. The parity status of the captured mosquitoes was also recorded. The number of eggs laid, and breeding productivity were also monitored when using different numbers and sizes of breeding sites. The BGS trap was used here as a control (gold standard) trap to compare capture rates to those of the GAT. The GAT recaptured between 50-65% of the mosquitoes independent of the number and sizes of the breeding sites in the SOEs, whereas the BGS recaptured 60-82% of the females. Both traps showed similar results regarding to the parity status of recaptured mosquitoes. Our results confirmed the effectiveness of GAT for the capture of adult female Ae. aegypti in simulated field environments. The BGS trap recaptured gravid Ae. aegypti before egg-laying in different sizes and number of breading sites, whereas the oviposition activity occurred prior to recapture mosquitoes in the GAT. Based on the results, we believe that GAT is a promising candidate for mass-trapping intervention in urban settings, but a source reduction intervention should be made prior trap deployment. Therefore, we suggest future field studies to confirm the use of GAT as a complementary tool in vector control activities.

Background: Temperature and humidity strongly affect the physiology, longevity, fecundity and dispersal behavior of Aedes aegypti, vector of dengue fever. Contrastingly, the statistical associations measured between time series of mosquito abundance and meteorological variables are often weak and contradictory. Here, we investigated the significance of these relationships at different time scales. Methods and Findings: A time series of the adult mosquito abundance from a medium-sized city in Brazil, lasting 109 weeks was analyzed. Meteorological variables included temperature, precipitation, wind velocity and humidity. As analytical tools, generalized linear models (GLM) with time lags and interaction terms were used to identify average effects while the wavelet analysis was complementarily used to identify transient associations. The fitted GLM showed that mosquito abundance is significantly affected by the interaction between lagged temperature and humidity, and also by the mosquito abundance a week earlier. Extreme meteorological variables were the best predictors, and the mosquito population tended to increase at values above and 54% humidity. The wavelet analysis identified non-stationary local effects of these meteorological variables on abundance throughout the study period, with peaks in the spring-summer period. The wavelet detected weak but significant effects for precipitation and wind velocity. Conclusion: Our results support the presence of transient relationships between meteorological variables and mosquito abundance. Such transient association may be explained by the ability of Ae. aegypti to buffer part of its response to climate, for example, by choosing sites with proper microclimate. We also observed enough coupling between the abundance and meteorological variables to develop a model with good predictive power. Extreme values of meteorological variables with time lags, interaction terms and previous mosquito abundance are strong predictors and should be considered when understanding the climate effect on mosquito abundance and population growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The BG-Malaria trap (BGM) is an adaptation of the well-known BG-Sentinel trap (BGS) with greater trapping efficiencies for anopheline and culicine mosquitoes. Its continued optimization requires greater understanding of mosquito flight behaviors near it. We used three high-resolution infrared cameras (68 frames/second) to track flight behaviors of laboratory-reared Anopheles arabiensis females in vicinity of the BGM in comparison with BGS. Additional comparisons were done for BGM at 20, 40 and 80cm heights, and for BGMs baited with Ifakara blend plus CO2, CO2 alone, or no bait. More mosquitoes were observed near BGM than BGS. Both BGMs installed 20cm above the floor and baited with CO2 received more visits by host-seeking mosquitoes than the other BGMs evaluated in their respective experiments. Trap designs, height and attractants all influence mosquito activity in vicinity of the traps which can be readily visualized using infrared cameras to accelerate trap development and testing. The greater activity of host-seeking mosquitoes near BGM than BGS supports the proven superiority of BGM traps in field and semi-field settings.

The goal of this study was to assess the goodness-of-fit of theoretical models of population dynamics of Aedes aegypti to trap data collected by a long term entomological surveillance program. The carrying capacity K of this vector was estimated at city and neighborhood level. Adult mosquito abundance was measured via adults collected weekly by a network of sticky traps (Mosquitraps) from January 2008 to December 2011 in Vitória, Espírito Santo, Brazil. K was the only free parameter estimated by the model. At the city level, the model with temperature as a driver captured the seasonal pattern of mosquito abundance. At the local level, we observed a spatial heterogeneity in the estimated carrying capacity between neighborhoods, weakly associated with environmental variables related to poor infrastructure. Model goodness-of-fit was influenced by the number of sticky traps, and suggests a minimum of 16 traps at the neighborhood level for surveillance.

BG-Malaria (BGM) trap is a simple adaptation of the widely-used BG-Sentinel trap (BGS). It is proven to be highly effective for trapping the Brazilian malaria vector, Anopheles darlingi, in field conditions, and the African vector, Anopheles arabiensis, under controlled semi-field environments, but has not been field-tested in Africa. Here, we validated the BGM for field sampling of malaria vectors in south-eastern Tanzania. Using a series of Latin-Square experiments conducted nightly (6pm-7am) in rural villages, we compared mosquito catches between BGM, BGS and human landing catches (HLC). We also compared BGMs baited with different attractants (Ifakara-blend, Mbita-blend, BG-Lure and CO2). Lastly, we tested BGMs baited with Ifakara-blend from three odour-dispensing methods (BG-Cartridge, BG-Sachet and Nylon strips). One-tenth of the field-collected female Anopheles gambiae s.l. and Anopheles funestus were dissected to assess parity. BGM captured more An. gambiae s.l. than BGS (p < 0.001), but HLC caught more than either trap (p < 0.001). However, BGM captured more An. funestus than HLC. Proportions of parous An. gambiae s.l. and An. funestus consistently exceeded 50%, with no significant difference between methods. While the dominant species caught by HLC was An. gambiae s.l. (56.0%), followed by Culex spp. (33.1%) and Mansonia spp. (6.0%), the BGM caught mostly Culex (81.6%), followed by An. gambiae s.l. (10.6%) and Mansonia (5.8%). The attractant-baited BGMs were all significantly superior to un-baited controls (p < 0.001), although no difference was found between the specific attractants. The BG-Sachet was the most efficient dispenser for capturing An. gambiae s.l. (14.5(2.75-42.50) mosquitoes/trap/night), followed by BG-Cartridge (7.5(1.75-26.25)). The BGM caught more mosquitoes than BGS in field-settings, but sampled similar species diversity and physiological states as BGS. The physiological states of malaria vectors caught in BGM and BGS were similar to those naturally attempting to bite humans (HLC). The BGM was most efficient when baited with Ifakara blend, dispensed from BG-Sachet. We conclude that though BGM traps have potential for field-sampling of host-seeking African malaria vectors with representative physiological states, both BGM and BGS predominantly caught more culicines than Anopheles, compared to HLC, which caught mostly An. gambiae s.l.

Odour-baited technologies are increasingly considered for effective monitoring of mosquito populations and for the evaluation of vector control interventions. The BG-Malaria trap (BGM), which is an upside-down variant of the widely used BG-Sentinel trap (BGS), has been demonstrated to be effective to sample the Brazilian malaria vector, Anopheles darlingi. We evaluated the BGM as an improved method for sampling the African malaria vectors, Anopheles arabiensis. Experiments were conducted inside a large semi-field cage to compare trapping efficiencies of BGM and BGS traps, both baited with the synthetic attractant, Ifakara blend, supplemented with CO2. We then compared BGMs baited with either of four synthetic mosquito lures, Ifakara blend, Mbita blend, BG-lure or CO2, and an unbaited BGM. Lastly, we compared BGMs baited with the Ifakara blend dispensed via either nylon strips, BG cartridges (attractant-infused microcapsules encased in cylindrical plastic cartridge) or BG sachets (attractant-infused microcapsules encased in plastic sachets). All tests were conducted between 6P.M. and 7A.M., with 200-600 laboratory-reared An. arabiensis released nightly in the test chamber. The median number of An. arabiensis caught by the BGM per night was 83, IQR:(73.5-97.75), demonstrating clear superiority over BGS (median catch = 32.5 (25.25-37.5)). Compared to unbaited controls, BGMs baited with Mbita blend caught most mosquitoes (45 (29.5-70.25)), followed by BGMs baited with CO2 (42.5 (27.5-64)), Ifakara blend (31 (9.25-41.25)) and BG lure (16 (4-22)). BGM caught 51 (29.5-72.25) mosquitoes/night, when the attractants were dispensed using BG-Cartridges, compared to BG-Sachet (29.5 (24.75-40.5)), and nylon strips (27 (19.25-38.25)), in all cases being significantly superior to unbaited controls (p < 000.1). The findings demonstrate potential of the BGM as a sampling tool for African malaria vectors over the standard BGS trap. Its efficacy can be optimized by selecting appropriate odour baits and odour-dispensing systems.

The factors affecting the inter-individual differences in sperm freezability is a major line of research in spermatology. Poor sperm freezability is mainly characterised by a low sperm velocity, which in turn is associated with low fertility rates in most animal species. Studies concerning the implications of sperm morphometry on freezability are quite limited, and most of them are based on sperm head size regardless of the structural parts of the flagellum, which provides sperm motility. Here, for the first time, we determined the volumes of the flagellum structures in fresh epididymal red deer spermatozoa using a stereological method under phase contrast microscopy. Sperm samples from thirty-three stags were frozen and classified as good freezers (GF) or bad freezers (BF) at two hours post-thawing using three sperm kinetic parameters which are strongly correlated with fertility in this species. Fourteen stags were clearly identified as GF, whereas nineteen were BF. No significant difference in sperm head size between the two groups was found. On the contrary, the GF exhibited a lower principal piece volume than the BF (6.13 µm3 vs 6.61 µm3, respectively, p = 0.006). The volume of the flagellum structures showed a strong negative relationship with post-thawing sperm velocity. For instance, the volume of the sperm principal piece was negatively correlated with sperm velocity at two hours post-thawing (r = -0.60; p

The bryozoan genus Scrupocellaria comprises about 80 species in the family Candidae. We propose a hypothesis for the phylogenetic relationships among species assigned to Scrupocellaria to serve as framework for a phylogenetic classification using 35 morphological characters. Our results suggest that the genus Scrupocellaria is polyphyletic. Scrupocellaria s. str. is redefined according to four morphological features: vibracular chamber with a curved setal groove, ooecium with a single ectooecial fenestra, two axillary vibracula, and a membranous operculum with a distinct distal rim. Thus, the genus includes only 11 species: Scrupocellaria aegeensis, Scrupocellaria delilii, Scrupocellaria harmeri, Scrupocellaria incurvata, Scrupocellaria inermis, Scrupocellaria intermedia, Scrupocellaria jullieni, Scrupocellaria minuta, Scrupocellaria puelcha, Scrupocellaria scrupea, and Scrupocellaria scruposa. The monophyly of Cradoscrupocellaria is supported and five new genera are erected: Aquiloniella n. gen., Aspiscellaria n. gen., Paralicornia n. gen., Pomocellaria n. gen. and Scrupocaberea n. gen. Two other new genera, Bathycellaria n. gen. and Sinocellaria n. gen., are erected to accommodate two poorly known species, Scrupocellaria profundis Osburn and Scrupocellaria uniseriata Liu, respectively. Scrupocellaria congesta is tentatively assigned to Tricellaria. Fifteen species are reassigned to Licornia: Licornia cookie n. comb., Licornia micheli n. comb., Licornia milneri n. comb., Licornia curvata n. comb., Licornia diegensis n. comb., Licornia drachi n. comb., Licornia mexicana n. comb., Licornia pugnax n. comb., Licornia raigadensis n. comb., Licornia regularis n. comb., Licornia resseri n. comb., Licornia securifera n. comb., Licornia spinigera n. comb., Licornia tridentata n. comb., and Licornia wasinensis n. comb. Notoplites americanus n. name is proposed as a replacement name for Scrupocellaria clausa Canu & Bassler. Three fossil species are reassigned to Canda: Canda rathbuni n. comb., Canda triangulata n. comb. and Canda williardi n. comb. A species is reassigned to Notoplites, Notoplites elegantissima n. comb. The generic assignment of eleven species of Scrupocellaria, including Scrupocellaria macandrei, remains uncertain.

BACKGROUND: Temperature and humidity strongly affect the physiology, longevity, fecundity and dispersal behavior of Aedes aegypti, vector of dengue fever. Contrastingly, the statistical associations measured between time series of mosquito abundance and meteorological variables are often weak and contradictory. Here, we investigated the significance of these relationships at different time scales. METHODS AND FINDINGS: A time series of the adult mosquito abundance from a medium-sized city in Brazil, lasting 109 weeks was analyzed. Meteorological variables included temperature, precipitation, wind velocity and humidity. As analytical tools, generalized linear models (GLM) with time lags and interaction terms were used to identify average effects while the wavelet analysis was complementarily used to identify transient associations. The fitted GLM showed that mosquito abundance is significantly affected by the interaction between lagged temperature and humidity, and also by the mosquito abundance a week earlier. Extreme meteorological variables were the best predictors, and the mosquito population tended to increase at values above [Formula: see text] and 54% humidity. The wavelet analysis identified non-stationary local effects of these meteorological variables on abundance throughout the study period, with peaks in the spring-summer period. The wavelet detected weak but significant effects for precipitation and wind velocity. CONCLUSION: Our results support the presence of transient relationships between meteorological variables and mosquito abundance. Such transient association may be explained by the ability of Ae. aegypti to buffer part of its response to climate, for example, by choosing sites with proper microclimate. We also observed enough coupling between the abundance and meteorological variables to develop a model with good predictive power. Extreme values of meteorological variables with time lags, interaction terms and previous mosquito abundance are strong predictors and should be considered when understanding the climate effect on mosquito abundance and population growth.

The use of vector surveillance tools for preventing dengue disease requires fine assessment of risk, in order to improve vector control activities. Nevertheless, the thresholds between vector detection and dengue fever occurrence are currently not well established. In Belo Horizonte (Minas Gerais, Brazil), dengue has been endemic for several years. From January 2007 to June 2008, the dengue vector Aedes (Stegomyia) aegypti was monitored by ovitrap, the sticky-trap MosquiTRAP™ and larval surveys in an study area in Belo Horizonte. Using a space-time scan for clusters detection implemented in SaTScan software, the vector presence recorded by the different monitoring methods was evaluated. Clusters of vectors and dengue fever were detected. It was verified that ovitrap and MosquiTRAP vector detection methods predicted dengue occurrence better than larval survey, both spatially and temporally. MosquiTRAP and ovitrap presented similar results of space-time intersections to dengue fever clusters. Nevertheless ovitrap clusters presented longer duration periods than MosquiTRAP ones, less acuratelly signalizing the dengue risk areas, since the detection of vector clusters during most of the study period was not necessarily correlated to dengue fever occurrence. It was verified that ovitrap clusters occurred more than 200 days (values ranged from 97.0±35.35 to 283.0±168.4 days) before dengue fever clusters, whereas MosquiTRAP clusters preceded dengue fever clusters by approximately 80 days (values ranged from 65.5±58.7 to 94.0±14. 3 days), the former showing to be more temporally precise. Thus, in the present cluster analysis study MosquiTRAP presented superior results for signaling dengue transmission risks both geographically and temporally. Since early detection is crucial for planning and deploying effective preventions, MosquiTRAP showed to be a reliable tool and this method provides groundwork for the development of even more precise tools.

The pancreatic beta cell is unique in its response to nutrient by increased fuel oxidation. Recent studies have demonstrated that oxygen consumption rate (OCR) may be a valuable predictor of islet quality and long term nutrient responsiveness. To date, high-throughput and user-friendly assays for islet respiration are lacking. The aim of this study was to develop such an assay and to examine bioenergetic efficiency of rodent and human islets.The XF24 respirometer platform was adapted to islets by the development of a 24-well plate specifically designed to confine islets. The islet plate generated data with low inter-well variability and enabled stable measurement of oxygen consumption for hours. The F1F0 ATP synthase blocker oligomycin was used to assess uncoupling while rotenone together with myxothiazol/antimycin was used to measure the level of non-mitochondrial respiration. The use of oligomycin in islets was validated by reversing its effect in the presence of the uncoupler FCCP. Respiratory leak averaged to 59% and 49% of basal OCR in islets from C57Bl6/J and FVB/N mice, respectively. In comparison, respiratory leak of INS-1 cells and C2C12 myotubes was measured to 38% and 23% respectively. Islets from a cohort of human donors showed a respiratory leak of 38%, significantly lower than mouse islets.The assay for islet respiration presented here provides a novel tool that can be used to study islet mitochondrial function in a relatively high-throughput manner. The data obtained in this study shows that rodent islets are less bioenergetically efficient than human islets as well as INS1 cells.

Sea biscuits and sand dollars diverged from other irregular echinoids approximately 55 million years ago and rapidly dispersed to oceans worldwide. A series of morphological changes were associated with the occupation of sand beds such as flattening of the body, shortening of primary spines, multiplication of podia, and retention of the lantern of Aristotle into adulthood. To investigate the developmental basis of such morphological changes we documented the ontogeny of Clypeaster subdepressus. We obtained gametes from adult specimens by KCl injection and raised the embryos at 26 degrees C. Ciliated blastulae hatched 7.5 h after sperm entry. During gastrulation the archenteron elongated continuously while ectodermal red-pigmented cells migrated synchronously to the apical plate. Pluteus larvae began to feed in 3 d and were 20 d old at metamorphosis; starved larvae died 17 d after fertilization. Postlarval juveniles had neither mouth nor anus nor plates on the aboral side, except for the remnants of larval spicules, but their bilateral symmetry became evident after the resorption of larval tissues. Ossicles of the lantern were present and organized in 5 groups. Each group had 1 tooth, 2 demipyramids, and 2 epiphyses with a rotula in between. Early appendages consisted of 15 spines, 15 podia (2 types), and 5 sphaeridia. Podial types were distributed in accordance to Lovén's rule and the first podium of each ambulacrum was not encircled by the skeleton. Seven days after metamorphosis juveniles began to feed by rasping sand grains with the lantern. Juveniles survived in laboratory cultures for 9 months and died with wide, a single open sphaeridium per ambulacrum, aboral anus, and no differentiated food grooves or petaloids. Tracking the morphogenesis of early juveniles is a necessary step to elucidate the developmental mechanisms of echinoid growth and important groundwork to clarify homologies between irregular urchins.

BACKGROUND: In the metabolic syndrome with hyperinsulinemia, mitochondrial inhibition facilitates muscle fat and glycogen accumulation and accelerates its progression. In the last decade, nitric oxide (NO) emerged as a typical mitochondrial modulator by reversibly inhibiting citochrome oxidase and oxygen utilization. We wondered whether insulin-operated signaling pathways modulate mitochondrial respiration via NO, to alternatively release complete glucose oxidation to CO(2) and H(2)O or to drive glucose storage to glycogen. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We illustrate here that NO produced by translocated nNOS (mtNOS) is the insulin-signaling molecule that controls mitochondrial oxygen utilization. We evoke a hyperinsulinemic-normoglycemic non-invasive clamp by subcutaneously injecting adult male rats with long-lasting human insulin glargine that remains stable in plasma by several hours. At a precise concentration, insulin increased phospho-Akt2 that translocates to mitochondria and determines in situ phosphorylation and substantial cooperative mtNOS activation (+4-8 fold, P

Background: Temperature and humidity strongly affect the physiology, longevity, fecundity and dispersal behavior of Aedes aegypti, vector of dengue fever. Contrastingly, the statistical associations measured between time series of mosquito abundance and meteorological variables are often weak and contradictory. Here, we investigated the significance of these relationships at different time scales. Methods and Findings: A time series of the adult mosquito abundance from a medium-sized city in Brazil, lasting 109 weeks was analyzed. Meteorological variables included temperature, precipitation, wind velocity and humidity. As analytical tools, generalized linear models (GLM) with time lags and interaction terms were used to identify average effects while the wavelet analysis was complementarily used to identify transient associations. The fitted GLM showed that mosquito abundance is significantly affected by the interaction between lagged temperature and humidity, and also by the mosquito abundance a week earlier. Extreme meteorological variables were the best predictors, and the mosquito population tended to increase at values above and 54% humidity. The wavelet analysis identified non-stationary local effects of these meteorological variables on abundance throughout the study period, with peaks in the spring-summer period. The wavelet detected weak but significant effects for precipitation and wind velocity. Conclusion: Our results support the presence of transient relationships between meteorological variables and mosquito abundance. Such transient association may be explained by the ability of Ae. aegypti to buffer part of its response to climate, for example, by choosing sites with proper microclimate. We also observed enough coupling between the abundance and meteorological variables to develop a model with good predictive power. Extreme values of meteorological variables with time lags, interaction terms and previous mosquito abundance are strong predictors and should be considered when understanding the climate effect on mosquito abundance and population growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We aimed to evaluate macrophages heterogeneity and structural, functional and inflammatory alterations in rat kidney by aldosterone + salt administration. The effects of treatment with spironolactone on above parameters were also analyzed. Male Wistar rats received aldosterone (1 mgkg-1d-1) + 1% NaCl for 3 weeks. Half of the animals were treated with spironolactone (200 mg kg-1d-1). Systolic and diastolic blood pressures were elevated (p<0.05) in aldosterone + salt-treated rats. Relative kidney weight, collagen content, fibronectin, macrophage infiltrate, CTGF, Col I, MMP2, TNF-α, CD68, Arg2, and SGK-1 were increased (p<0.05) in aldosterone + salt-treated rats, being reduced by spironolactone (p<0.05). Increased iNOS and IFN-γ mRNA gene expression (M1 macrophage markers) was observed in aldosterone + salt rats, whereas no significant differences were observed in IL-10 and gene ArgI mRNA expression or ED2 protein content (M2 macrophage markers). All the observed changes were blocked with spironolactone treatment. Macrophage depletion with liposomal clodronate reduced macrophage influx and inflammatory M1 markers (INF-γ or iNOS), whereas interstitial fibrosis was only partially reduced after this intervention, in aldosterone plus salt-treated rats. In conclusion, aldosterone + salt administration mediates inflammatory M1 macrophage phenotype and increased fibrosis throughout mineralocorticoid receptors activation.