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The importance of the muscle-tendon complex in sport and for activities of everyday living is well recognised. The free oscillation technique is frequently used to determine the musculo-articular "apparent" stiffness (obtained from vertical ground reaction force) and other parameters. However, an in-depth understanding of the muscle-tendon complex can be gained by separating the muscle (soleus) and the tendon (Achilles tendon) components and studying the "true" stiffness for each of these components (by considering the ankle joint moment arms), which can be valuable in improving our understanding of training, injury prevention, and recovery programs. Hence, this study aimed to investigate if muscle and tendon stiffness (i.e., "true" stiffness) are similarly affected by different impulse magnitudes when using the free-oscillation technique. Three impulse magnitudes (impulse 1, 2 and 3), corresponding to peak forces of 100, 150 and 200 N, were used to estimate the stiffness of the ankle joint in 27 males, using multiple loads (10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, and 40 kg). A significant decrease (p < 0.0005) was found in musculo-articular "apparent" stiffness (29224 ± 5087 N.m-1; 27839 ± 4914 N.m-1; 26835 ± 4880 N.m-1) between impulses 1, 2 and 3 respectively, when loads were collapsed across groups. However, significant differences (p < 0.001) were only found between the median (Mdn) of impulse 1 (Mdn = 564.31 (kN/m)/kN) and 2 (Mdn = 468.88 (kN/m)/kN) and between impulse 1 (Mdn = 564.31 (kN/m)/kN) and 3 (Mdn = 422.19 (kN/m)/kN), for "true" muscle stiffness, but not for "true" tendon stiffness (Mdn = 197.35 kN/m; Mdn = 210.26 kN/m; Mdn = 201.60 kN/m). The results suggest that the musculo-articular "apparent" stiffness around the ankle joint is influenced by the magnitude of the impulse applied. Interestingly, this is driven by muscle stiffness, whereas tendon stiffness appears to be unaffected.

The purpose of this study was to carry out a material test to investigate the effect of different force plate coverings on vertical and horizontal ground reaction force and derived parameters. Four surface conditions were analysed; bare plate, vinyl, sportflex, and astroturf on a Kistler force plate. Vertical data were collected by dropping a 2 kg rigid, textured medicine ball from a low (61 cm) and a high (139 cm) height. Horizontal data were collected using a custom-built, rigid, metal pendulum device. A one-way ANOVA revealed a significant main effect of surface on peak force and rate of force development for high height, low height, and horizontal force conditions (all p

Since higher vertical stiffness is related to superior athletic performance, training has traditionally been aimed at augmenting this variable to enhance neuromuscular output. However, research has linked elevated stiffness with increased injury risk, therefore, this study examined the effect of a novel training intervention on vertical stiffness and athletic performance. Vertical stiffness, jump performance and athletic performance were assessed in two randomly allocated groups, prior to, and following, an eight-week period. One group was exposed to a training intervention involving aqua-based plyometrics (n = 11) over the 8 weeks while the other acted as a control group (n = 9). The training intervention involved hopping, jumping and bounding in water at a depth of 1.2m whilst control participants performed their normal training. There were no significant changes in vertical stiffness in either group. Countermovement jump height and peak power significantly increased within the aqua plyometric group (p < 0.05). Athletic performance markers improved in the aqua plyometric group as measured using an agility and a 5-bound test exhibiting superior values at the post-test (p < 0.05). The results suggest that an aqua plyometric training program can enhance athletic performance without elevating stiffness. The increase in athletic performance is likely due to a reduction in ground reaction forces created by the buoyancy of the water, causing a shorter amortization phase and a more rapid application of concentric force. The findings from this study can inform exercise professionals and medical staff regarding the ability to enhance neuromuscular performance without elevating vertical stiffness. This has implications for improving athletic performance while concurrently minimising injury risk.

The assessment of musculo-articular stiffness (MAS) with the free-oscillation technique is a popular method with a variety of applications. This study examined the sources of variability (load applied and frequency of oscillation) when MAS is assessed. Over two testing occasions, 14 healthy men (27.7±5.2 yr, 1.82±0.04 m, 79.5±8.4 kg) were measured for isometric maximum voluntary contraction and MAS of the knee flexors using submaximal loads relative to the individual's maximum voluntary contraction (MAS%MVC) and a single absolute load (MASABS). As assessment load increased, MAS%MVC (coefficient of variation (CV) = 8.1-12.1%; standard error of measurement (SEM) = 51.6-98.8 Nm⁻¹) and frequency (CV = 4.8-7.0%; SEM = 0.060-0.075 s⁻¹) variability increased consequently. Further, similar levels of variability arising from load (CV = 6.7%) and frequency (CV = 4.8-7.0%) contributed to the overall MAS%MVC variability. The single absolute load condition yielded better reliability scores for MASABS (CV = 6.5%; SEM = 40.2 Nm⁻¹) and frequency (CV = 3.3%; SEM = 0.039 s⁻¹). Low and constant loads for MAS assessment, which are particularly relevant in the clinical setting, exhibited superior reliability compared to higher loads expressed as a percentage of maximum voluntary contraction, which are more suitable for sporting situations. Appropriate sample size and minimum detectable change can therefore be determined when prospective studies are carried out.