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Globally, the production of Pekin ducks for meat and eggs is considerable, with an estimated >200 million ducks slaughtered yearly for their meat in the United States and the European Union alone. However, despite the size of the Pekin duck industries, there is a lack of research-based guidance regarding the welfare of the ducks. The purpose of this systematic review is to examine and summarize available scientific literature related to the welfare of Pekin ducks raised on commercial farms for meat and eggs. Specifically, we aimed to identify topics where sufficient literature exists to support best-practice duck welfare recommendations, as well as further research needs. The literature search targeted original research papers and review articles published in English. Six pre-establish inclusion/exclusion criteria were applied, yielding 63 publications. We summarized their content based their main topic of focus. For all original studies, we additionally recorded the country where the study was executed, scale of the project (commercial or experimental barns), general information about the housing system and management (waterers, flooring, ventilation, group size, and space allowance), and the types of outcome variables collected. We begin with an overview of key publication trends. We then synthesize and discuss welfare outcomes related to key housing/management decisions: bathing water, flooring and litter, stocking density and space availability, ventilation/air quality, lighting, outdoor access, and for egg laying birds the availability of nest boxes. Throughout, we outline specific research gaps, as well as overarching research needs.

The influence of feed allowance during rearing (4 to 18 wk) and breeding (18 to 62 wk) on ovarian morphology and egg production was examined. During rearing, beginning at 4 wk of age, 400 Indian River pullets that had been full-fed from 1 day of age either continued to be full-fed (F, n = 200) or were feed restricted (R, n = 200), following commercial practice. At 18 wk of age, 100 birds (within +15% of the mean BW) in each of F and R rearing groups were further assigned to be full-fed (n = 50) or feed restricted (n = 50) during breeding. Thus, based on feed allowance during rearing and breeding, four treatment groups were formed (FF, FR, RF, and RR). Feed restriction during rearing significantly delayed oviduct development and age at sexual maturity (age at first egg). Compared with feed restriction during both rearing and breeding (RR), ad libitum feeding beginning at 18 wk of age (RF) significantly increased the weight of the ovary and the number of large follicles at sexual maturity but did not significantly affect the age at sexual maturity. Feed restriction during rearing, breeding, or both significantly reduced the incidence of erratic ovipositions, defective eggs, and multiple ovulations. The incidence of erratic ovipositions was positively correlated (r = .692, P less than or equal to .001) with the laying of soft-shelled and shell-less eggs and negatively correlated (r = -.508, P less than or equal to .001) with the production of settable eggs to 62 wk of age. Compared with ad libitum feeding, controlled feeding during breeding significantly improved both settable and total egg production. Among the four feeding regimens, Treatment RR resulted in the highest fertility and hatchability.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the energy requirements of broiler breeders during their pullet-layer transition period, based on the actual production of individual birds rather than on flock averages. Individual laying records were established in two preliminary trials with birds housed in battery cages, and the effects of higher than usual daily energy allocations, starting at various ages, were determined in two floor-pen trials. The rise in average egg production on a flock basis parallels the increase in the proportion of laying birds in the flock, while the rate of production among layers only is rather uniform (approximately 80%) from the beginning of their laying period. The best performance was obtained when birds were provided with a daily energy allowance of 440 kcal/bird/day beginning 2 to 3 weeks before the start of egg production. The traditional regimen of slow, gradual increases in feed allocation with rising average flock production resulted in the worst performance. Egg size responded more readily to increased energy allowances than did rate of production. Suboptimal energy supply up to levels of 55% or even 30% production cannot be corrected by providing adequate or even excessive energy allocations after these stages.

THE PROBLEM AND PURPOSE OF THIS STUDY A LARGE percentage of the wholesale packs of eggs for consumption in shell form moving from surplus production areas to terminal markets are packed in new cases, fillers and flats. Larger assemblers of shell eggs in deficit areas also pack most table grades of eggs in new materials. Wholesale packs of eggs offered for sale at either the New York or Chicago Exchanges are required to be in new cases. A good example of the comparative value of eggs in new versus used materials is cited in the new shell egg futures contract governing “Fresh Mediums.” Trading in this commodity began on the New York Mercantile Exchange April 18, 1960, with the following provision: “in used cases—30 cents allowance (penalty) for case.” Used cases, fillers and flats are readily available after being used initially for shipments to terminal markets. These used cases…

THE optimum floor space allowance for laying hens is both an economic and environment-performance problem. Changes in types of laying houses, ventilation systems, mechanization, types of floors and higher density populations have focused attention on this problem. Factors such as temperature and humidity in a given area, breeding of the birds, disease and mortality problems, stresses due to crowding, housing costs, profit margins, capital availability, depreciation costs, and many other factors must be considered in the final analysis of this problem. Knowledge of the performance of laying hens under a wide variation of environmental conditions should provide a valuable basis in arriving at the most economical population density under a given price structure and set of environmental conditions. Considerable variation exists among the reports in scientific journals regarding the influence of floor space density on production traits. Bressler and Walton (1957) housed pullets in large pens with 1.9, 1.3, and …

This paper is a preliminary report on some results obtained in attempting to estimate the gross maintenance requirement of White Leghorn chickens from data obtained from feeding experiments specially planned for that purpose. The expression, “gross maintenance requirement,” as employed here, is used to designate that weight of feed (in grams) which a chicken requires each day for all purposes, except for increasing its live weight and for producing eggs. The feeding experiments were so planned that a number of pens of chickens were fed at levels of feed intake which differed from one another by a fixed amount, all the levels of feed intake being less than that required for maintaining live weight. The daily allowance of feed for each pen was weighed and placed in small paper bags before the experiment was started, and each morning during the experiment proper one of these bags was emptied into the . . .

AS HAS been pointed out by Motzok, Hill and Branion (1943), one of the greatest sources of error in the A.O.A.C. method of assaying for vitamin D is the difference in the response of individual chicks to a given dose of the vitamin. Nevertheless, only a few attempts have been made to bring this source of error under control. O’Neil (1941) compared the response of Leghorn (both Black and White) chicks from different dams and found statistically significant differences among the progenies of the dams. He pointed out, however, that the whole of these differences may not be of genetic origin. Heiman and Tighe (1942) studied the comparative vitamin D requirements of White Leghorn and crossbred (BPRm× RIRf) chicks. They found that the tibia ash of the White Leghorn chicks, at the age of five weeks, was larger at all corresponding levels of vitamin D intake than that of the . . .

ADEQUATE feeding space and optimum population density (floor space) are generally considered necessary for maximum growth of broiler chickens. Recommended space allowances vary somewhat, with the recommendations published by the Nutrition Council of the American Feed Manufacturers Association (1952) representing the majority of institutions making recommendations. Their recommendation for floor space per bird is: ½ sq. ft. through 6 weeks and 1 sq. ft. for 7 through 12 weeks. For feeding space per 100 birds the recommendation is: 0–2 weeks 100 linear inches; 3–6 weeks 175 inches; 7–12 weeks 300 inches; these allowances should be increased during warm weather. Less than the recommended space allowance in either category is often referred to as a stress upon the chickens. Frequently in popular articles and talks the suggestion is made that when floor space per chick is below the recommended level, feeding space should be increased. The theory behind …

FOR many years it has been the practice to include in the feed of laying chickens only a part of the calcium needed for egg production, and to give the chickens free access to a calcium supplement. It was believed that the chickens would consume enough additional calcium to fully meet their needs. Oddly enough, there is but little experimental evidence on record to support that belief. Berg et al. (1944) reported the results of a comparison of two methods of supplying calcium to laying pullets, that of putting the full allowance in the feed, and that of putting a part of it in the feed and giving the pullets free access to limestone grit. The feed that supplied the full allowance contained 3.08 percent of calcium. Three other feeds contained, respectively, 0.926, 1.875, and 2.727 percent of calcium; and the chickens that received those feeds were given free access…

POULTRY breeders and growers are in terested in knowing the performance of various broiler crosses under similar management conditions in order to ascertain the relationships between heredity and environment. Although some research has been conducted to determine these relationships, little information is available which pertains to the interactions of broiler crossbreds and environmental factors during various seasons of the year. If such interactions are of major importance, management recommendations may have to be restricted to the specific environmental conditions most favorable to a particular crossbred. Merritt and Gowe (1956) found a significant strain-location interaction for 6-week body weight in males and for 10-week breast angle in females. These interactions, however, were not significant in the opposite sex. No strain-location interactions were obtained in either sex for body weight, keel length or shank length at 10 weeks of age. Krueger et al. (1957) in an experiment using several strains of broilers …

TURKEY production has become very competitive and highly specialized with more birds being reared in larger production units. Many management recommendations, currently utilized by the turkey industry, lack supporting research data. In fact, most of the recommended procedures are based on research with the chicken or represent the opinions of growers through their own experience. The producer has taken this information, modified it somewhat and applied it to his turkey growing program without really knowing whether his management practices are resulting in maximum growth, feed efficiency, market quality, and maximum returns from his rearing facilities. Population density studies with species other than the domestic turkey have been extensively explored (Smith, 1961; Nishigaki, 1963, with insects; and Clough, 1965, with rodents). Data obtained with swine by Heitman et al. (1961) have shown that maximum rates of body weight gain in confinement increased to a floor space allowance of 186 dm.2/animal. Jensen…

Two hundred and forty Hubbard X Hubbard breeder pullets, 3 weeks of age, received conventional quantities of feed according to the breeder's recommendation or 5, 10, or 20% extra feed allowance. On reaching an average weight of 2.1 kg, birds were moved to laying cages, subjected to 14 hr of light per day, and offered a breeder diet at the breeder's recommended allowance. Increased feed intake resulted in increased growth rate such that control, +5, +10, and +20% groups reached 2.1 kg liveweight at 20, 18, 18, and 16 weeks, respectively. Total feed intake was significantly less to 2.1 kg liveweight for the younger birds. The early move to the laying house subsequently resulted in early maturity. However, these birds failed to show persistency of production after peak, there being a 10% decline within a 4-week period. Control reared birds, starting production at 23 weeks, exhibited a more conventional and persistent peak egg production. There was an indication that early maturity adversely affected egg size. The significant saving in pullet feed cost warrants further trials aimed at elucidating the mechanisms affecting persistency of production in early maturing broiler breeders.

Studies were conducted to determine the daily energy needs of the dwarf broiler breeder hen. In the first study, hens were control-fed diets ranging from 325 to 400 M.E. kcal./hen/day with ample amounts of other essential nutrients. Hens did not totally consume all of their daily allotment so in a second study the calorie allowance ranged from 260 to 320 M.E. kcal./hen/day. From the results of these studies it is estimated that the daily energy requirement of the dwarf broiler breeder hen is greater than 249 but no more than 269 M.E. kcal./day.

Two trials were conducted to determine floor space requirements of guinea fowl from day-old to 12 weeks of age. Keets hatched at this station were placed in litter floor pens at densities of .07, .09, and .11 m2 per bird. Body weight and feed consumption data were taken at 4, 8, and 12 weeks of age. Best performance was obtained with the floor space allowance of .09 m2 per bird.

A NUMBER of studies (Randles, 1947; Rodewyk, 1950; Merritt and Gowe, 1956) have shown that geese lay more eggs in their second and even later years than they do in their first or pullet year. There is also some evidence from these studies that eggs laid by pullet geese do not hatch as well as eggs laid by the same birds as yearlings. Due to the natural increase in reproductive performance with age, geese are usually kept beyond their first year. For selective breeding purposes, it is necessary to make some allowance for the effect of age in order to compare the performance of individuals of different ages, and to make use of all records available on these individuals. The most satisfactory estimates of age effects (or age-correction factors) are from populations in which all individuals are given the opportunity to have repeat records regardless of their previous performance. It …