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Gastrointestinal helminth parasites are a concern for the poultry industry worldwide as they can affect the health, welfare, and production performance. A systematic review of the prevalence over time in different countries may improve our understanding of gastrointestinal helminthiasis in chickens and subsequently lead to improved poultry health. The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to provide an overview of the published information regarding the epidemiology and the diagnostic approaches of chicken helminth infection. Six databases were searched for studies, and a total of 2,985 articles published between 1942 and 2019 were identified and subsequently screened for eligibility using title or abstract and full text assessment, resulting in 191 publications to be used in the study. Postmortem diagnostics (73.8%) and the flotation technique (28.8%) were commonly used to detect helminth infections with a pooled prevalence of 79.4% ranging from 4 to 100%. More than 30 helminth species in chicken populations were identified including Ascaridia galli (35.9%), Heterakis gallinarum (28.5%), Capillaria spp. (5.90%), and Raillietina spp. (19.0%) being the most prevalent. The reported prevalence of helminth infection decreased over time in developing countries while it increased in the developed world. Chicken kept in backyard and free-range systems had a markedly higher pooled prevalence of helminth infection (82.6 and 84.8%, respectively) than those housed in cage production systems (63.6%). This may indicate the need for more rigorous control and prevention measures in free-range and backyard production systems using regular deworming coupled with access to early and accurate diagnosis allowing for early intervention.

A study was conducted to determine the performance, egg quality, and liver lipid reserves of laying hens exposed to ranges contaminated with Ascaridia galli. Sixteen-week-old Lohmann Brown laying hens (n = 200) were divided into 4 treatments with 5 replicates containing 10 hens per pen. Hens of treatment 1 [negative control (NC)] ranged on a decontaminated area, and hens of treatments 2 (low infection) and 3 (medium infection) ranged on areas previously contaminated by hens artificially infected with 250 and 1,000 embryonated A. galli eggs, respectively. The hens of treatment 4 [positive control (PC)] ranged on areas previously contaminated by hens artificially infected with 2,500 embryonated A. galli eggs, and in addition these hens were orally inoculated with 1,000 embryonated eggs. Results indicated that hens of the medium infection group had a higher number of intestinal A. galli worms and A. galli eggs in the coprodeum excreta (43.9 ± 4.0 and 3,437 ± 459 eggs/g) compared to hens of the low infection group (23.8 ± 4.0 and 1,820 ± 450 eggs/g) (P0.01) and similar worm counts to PC hens (34.4 ± 4.0 and 2,918 ± 474) (P 0.05). Egg production, egg mass, feed intake, and feed conversion ratio (FCR) were not affected by A. galli infection (P0.05). Egg quality parameters (egg weight, shell reflectivity, shell weight, shell thickness, shell percentage, shell breaking strength, deformation, albumen height, Haugh unit, and yolk score) were not affected by A. galli infection (P0.05). Highly infected hens had lower liver lipid content (2.72 ± 0.51 g) compared to uninfected hens (4.46 ± 0.58 g, P0.01). The results indicate that exposure to ranges contaminated with A. galli resulted in infection of the ranging hens, but this did not affect egg production or egg quality. Infection with A. galli lowered the liver lipid reserves of the host significantly, suggesting infected hens use more energy reserves for maintenance and production.

Gastrointestinal nematodes are re-emerging in countries where the popularity of free-range poultry production systems is increasing. Amongst all gastrointestinal nematodes, Ascaridia galli is of significant concern due to the parasite's direct life cycle and ability to survive extreme environmental conditions. In laying hens, A. galli parasites have been associated with reduced health, welfare, immunity, and egg production. Direct losses are caused by obstruction and damage of the intestinal tract in hens when high worm burdens are present. These result in reduction in egg production and body weight of infected laying hens, consequently leading to significant economic losses for farmers. Furthermore, heavy infections with A. galli may lead to increased mortality within the flock. Indirect losses are due to suppression of immune system function which can increase susceptibility to secondary infections. Infection with A. galli can also alter nutrient utilization and absorption. Levels of anti- A. galli serum and egg yolk antibodies increase following A. galli infection. Elevated antibodies can be used as an indicator of current or previous infections and therefore can be used as a diagnostic tool. The impact of A. galli on hen health and welfare manifests through the depletion of liver lipid reserves and increased use of energy reserves to mount immune responses against the parasite. This review highlights the variable effects of A. galli infection on the performance, health, egg quality, and emphasizes especially on immune responses of free-range laying hens as well as it evaluates various potential detection methods and preventive and control measures of this parasitic disease.

Ascaridia galli is one of the most abundant nematode parasites in poultry. A. galli infections can significantly impact the profitability of egg farms and have negative implications for bird health and welfare. The main objectives of this study were to determine whether A. galli specific antibodies in egg yolks can be used to detect prior or current exposure to A. galli in laying hens, and to distinguish between eggs obtained from caged and free-range hens. Twenty-two laying hen flocks from different production systems (10 free-range, 2 barn-housed, and 9 caged flocks) were enrolled in the study. An in-house enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay was used to analyze levels of A. galli specific antibodies in yolk. The numbers of A. galli eggs in hen excreta were also determined in a subset of farms. Free-range flocks had higher and also more variable levels of anti-A. galli antibodies in the egg yolk compared to those of the cage flocks (0.50 ± 0.39 vs. 0.16 ± 0.13 OD units) (P < 0.001). Results also confirmed that excreta from free-range and barn-housed flocks contained higher numbers of A. galli eggs than did excreta from caged flocks in which no A. galli eggs were detected. In conclusion, analysis of anti-A. galli antibodies in the egg yolk can be used to detect worm exposure in commercial layer flocks. However, the method used in this study cannot be used in isolation to distinguish between eggs from cage and free-range production systems as anti-A galli antibodies were detected in egg yolk samples from all production systems, and the range of antibody levels overlapped between production systems.

This study was conducted to determine the effect of Ascaridia galli infection on free-range laying hens. Lohmann Brown laying hens (n = 200) at 17 wk of age were allocated to 4 treatment groups (n = 50 per group), each with 5 replicate pens of 10 hens. Hens in 3 treatment groups were orally inoculated with different doses of embryonated A. galli eggs: low (250 eggs), medium (1,000 eggs), and high (2,500 eggs) levels, whereas hens of the control group were not infected. Infection levels were monitored using excreta egg counts and mature A. galli worm counts in the intestine. Anti A. galli antibody titers (IgY) in the serum were measured prior to infection, and at 6, 11, 15, and 20 wk post infection (PI) and in egg yolk at 11 and 20 wk PI. Parameters evaluated included feed intake, egg production, egg weight, egg mass, FCR, liver weight, liver fat, and intra epithelial immune cell infiltration. The results showed no difference in feed intake, body weight, or FCR among any treatment groups (P > 0.05). Egg production was lower in the low infection group compared to other groups at 20 wk of age (P

A CONSIDERABLE literature on the anthelmintic effects of piperazine compounds has accumulated. Since this has been reviewed in several recent papers mention is only made of publications which have a direct bearing on the subject of the present paper. Guilhon (1951) discussed the activity of piperazine against Ascaridia columbae and Capillaria columbae in pigeons. Sloan, Kingsbury and Jolly (1954) were the first British workers to report results obtained with some forty piperazine compounds. These authors described the value of piperazine in full-scale trials in horses, pigs, dogs, cats and poultry. Following closely on this publication, Leiper (1954) mentions that piperazine is effective eliminating Ascaridia and, to some extent, Capillaria and Heterakis as well. Poynter (1955a) found that piperazine adipate was an efficient anthelmintic against Parascaris equorum in horses. Lee (1955) described piperazine adipate as a safe and efficient anthelmintic against Neoascaris vitulorum when administered to calves in single doses. He …

THE effective use of various piperazine compounds against related and unrelated groups of nematode parasites has been described by many authors. Since this paper is concerned solely with two nematodes parasitic in the domestic fowl, mention is made only of the publications dealing with this subject. Sloan, Kingsbury and Jolly (1954) reported favorable results obtained with piperazine derivatives used as anthelmintics in poultry. Leiper (1954) found piperazine compounds extremely effective in eliminating Ascaridia galli but less effective against Capillaria and Heterakis. Shumard and Eveleth (1955) and Bradley (1955) found piperazine citrate effective in removing Ascaridia from chickens. Horton-Smith and Long (1956) reported that piperazine adipate, piperazine citrate and piperazine-l-carbodithioic betaine completely eliminated adult Ascaridia when administered in single doses varying from 100 to 500 mg./kg. body weight. The data presented here describe acute and chronic toxicity trials with two forms, one used in water, the other in feed of a . . .

EXPERIMENTAL observations have shown that natural resistance of chickens to helminthic infections may be affected by genetic constitution, age and diet. Judging resistance on the basis of number and length of worms, Ackert and Wilmoth (1934) reported that a strain of heavy White Minorcas was more resistant to the nematode, Ascaridia galli, than a lighter strain of the same breed. Using the same parasite, Ackert et al. (1935) found that some lighter breeds of poultry were more susceptible than heavy breeds and varieties. Age resistance of chickens to A. galli was first reported by Herrick (1926). Later, it was found that this increase in age resistance in chickens correlated with an increase of intestinal goblet cell number (Ackert and Edgar, 1938) and that the goblet cells secreted a possible inhibitory growth factor (Ackert, Edgar and Frick, 1939; and Frick and Ackert, 1948). That diet is a possible factor in resistance . . .

THE influence of protein upon the resistance of poultry to helminthiasis was briefly presented in a review by Riedel (1954). Too, Almquist and Grau (1944) found that with respect to growth protein sources may be omitted from the diet of the chick when a mixture of certain amino acids was substituted. From this fact it is reasonable to assume that the increased resistance in animals encouraged by certain protein supplements may be attributed to specific amino acids rather than the source of protein. The effects of a few amino acids on diseases in poultry have been studied. Briggs, Mills et al. (1942) stated that cystine was instrumental in preventing gizzard erosion in the fowl, and Almquist (1941) noted that choline prevented perosis in chickens. A tryptophane deficiency in chickens was reported by Brown, Wilkening and Schweigert (1948) to promote gall bladder erosion, swelling of seminiferous tubules and degeneration of spleen …

THE influence of protein source upon the resistance of a host to parasitism has been examined. Ackert and Beach (1933) reported that chickens fed meat scrap and skimmilk in addition to a basal cereal ration harbored fewer and shorter Ascaridia galli than did chickens receiving the basal cereal ration supplemented with meat scrap or peanut meal. Luttermoser and Allen (1942) found that contrasting protein levels affected the growth of the host, but the numbers of Raillietina cesticellus harbored by the chickens did not correlate with the protein level of the diet administered to the host. From the results of Riedel and Ackert (1950 Riedel and Ackert (1951) it may be noted that a supplement of 14.2 percent soybean oil meal and skimmilk every second day produced greater resistance among birds than did either a supplement of 14.2 percent soybean oil meal or 14.2 percent meat scrap in a similar, cereal basal ration. The …

INFORMATION is limited on helminth parasites infecting chickens and turkeys in Kansas Ackert (1927) reported a 66% incidence of Heterakis gallinarum in mature chickens. Ferry (1934) reported the tapeworms Raillietina cesticillus, Hymenolepis carioca, R. tetragona, R. echinobothrida Amoebotaenia sphenoides, and Choanotaenia infundibulum from a survey of 50 chickens in Douglas county. Morehouse (1944) reported Capillaria caudinflata from chickens in Brown and Miami counties. Ackert (1956) reported that in an earlier survey of 1000 chickens from the vicinity of Manhattan 49% were infected with Ascaridia galli. Kerr (1958) reported Ascaridia dissimilis from turkeys. Surveys of poultry parasites have been made in the United States by Guberlet (1916, Nebraska), Adams et al. (1933, Texas), Wehr (1937, Washington, D. C.), Koutz (1949, Ohio), Todd (1948, Tennessee), Edgar (1953, Alabama), and Reid (1958, Georgia). Data from these different areas and poultry enterprises are not necessarily applicable to the poultry industry in Kansas. Accordingly, this…

THERE has been considerable interest in the anthelmintic activity of piperazine compounds since the publication by Hewitt et al. (1947) of good results obtained from 1-diethylcarbamyl-4-methylpiperazine hydrochloride (Hetrazan) in treating human filariasis, and the report by Hewitt et al. (1948) on control of ascarids in dogs and cats. Recently, Sloan et al. (1954) showed that a single oral administration of 150 mg. or more of piperazine adipate per kilogram of body weight resulted in 97 to 100% elimination of Ascaridia galli from chickens. About the same time, Leiper (1954), who used infected domestic hens in drug-testing studies, reported that certain piperazine compounds were effective in removing Ascaridia and to a lesser extent Capillaria and Heterakis. Shumard and Eveleth (1955) and Bradley (1955) presented preliminary evidence that piperazine citrate was effective in causing elimination of A. galli. Since no mention was made by the above investigators as to the elimination of . . .

THE relationship of vitamin A nutrition to certain diseases has been studied. Plasma vitamin A and carotene levels were significantly lower in chickens infected with coryza, cholera and Newcastle disease (Squibb et al., 1955). Squibb and Veros (1961) reported that Newcastle virus infection in White Leghorn cockerels did not prevent absorption of vitamin A during the active period of the disease, nor were vitamin A reserves depressed. Sayedain and Kenzy (1960) found that adequate vitamin A in the diet was important in maintaining the resistance of chickens which were exposed to Candida albicans. Hepatic vitamin A reserves in chickens heavily infested with Ascaridia galli were much lower than in birds reasonably free of parasites (Pande and Krishnamurty, 1959). Boyd and Edwards (1962) reported that Mycoplasma gallisepticum and E. coli infections in the chick had no direct influence on vitamin A absorption or metabolism. High dietary levels of vitamin A have . . .

INCREASED predisposition to general infection in animals deprived of vitamin A has been observed by several workers (Cramer, 1923; Green and Mellanby, 1930, 1935) and the opinion has been expressed that epithelial metaplasia associated with all stages of vitamin A deficiency (Eddy and Dalldorf, 1944; and Heilbron et al., 1944) renders the altered epithelium more vulnerable to bacterial or parasitic attack. Thus, Ackert et al. (1927) experimenting with chicks under controlled conditions of feeding have established that vitamin A deficiency in chicks favours infestation with Ascaridia galli and the worms recovered from birds fed a vitamin A deficient diet were significantly greater in number and size in comparison with those of control birds. While this may be true under experimental feeding conditions, truly deficient rations are much less common in nature and, as has been pointed out by Lippincott and Card (1946), partial deficiency of vitamin A (hypovitaminosis A) in …

EVIDENCE has been presented which indicated that the resistance of chickens to infection by the large roundworm may be affected by several factors. Among these factors are genetic constitution (Ackert and Wilmoth, 1934; and Ackert et al., 1935a) and diet (Ackert and Beach, 1933; Ackert et al., 1927; Ackert and Spindler, 1929; and Riedel and Ackert, 1950a). Age as a factor of resistance was reported by Herrick (1926); Ackert et al. (1935b); and Riedel and Ackert (1950b). Histological studies made by Ackert and Edgar (1938) disclosed a progressive increase of goblet cells in the chicken duodenum. This increase of the number of goblet cells correlated with the increase of age resistance established formerly by Herrick (1926). The mucus secreted by the goblet cells was tested (Ackert, Todd and Tanner, 1938; and Frick and Ackert, 1948) and the results showed that the growth of young Ascaridia was retarded when placed in . . .

THE periodic scarcity of conventional litter materials is a matter of increasing concern to broiler producers in many parts of the country. In areas where the problem has been especially acute some poultrymen have resorted to reusing the litter for 2 or more broods. Although Kennard and Chamberlin (1947, 1948a, b, 1949a, b, 1951) have demonstrated the effectiveness of built-up litter pathologists and poultrymen are still concerned about the possibility of perpetuating disease organisms to succeeding broods. The use of a soil fumigant, methyl bromide, by Andrews et al. (1943) and Boney (1948) for control of coccidia and intermediate hosts of some internal parasites suggested to Edgar and King (1955) the possibility of sterilizing poultry litter with methyl bromide. In a controlled laboratory study and under “semi-field conditions” they reported that methyl bromide killed Aspergillus fumigatus on agar, Ascaridia galli eggs and Eimeria tenella oocysts in a small amount of water…

DURING the past several years various papers have been published on the efficacy of piperazine citrate for the control of Ascaridia galli in poultry. Shumard and Eveleth (1955) pointed out that the use of this drug in drinking water for 1 to 4 days in concentrations of 8,000 mg. per gallon was 100 percent effective against A. galli. Bradley (1955) reported that a flock of chickens which received piperazine citrate in concentrations of 8,000 mg. per gallon of drinking water during 60 hours showed at necropsy an average of 0.24 immature ascarids and no adult worms. A second flock of chickens which received the drug in concentrations of 6,000 mg. per gallon of water for 24 hours showed at necropsy an average of 0.85 immature and 0.14 mature ascarids. In further studies, Shumard and Eveleth (1956) reported that chickens receiving piperazine citrate in drinking water at the rate of 2,000 . . .

DIETARY deficiencies and disease have been associated through the years. However, experimental tests of a single food deficiency on the host resistance to a parasite appear to have begun in 1926 when Zimmerman, Vincent and Ackert found that a deficiency of vitamin B (complex) lowered the resistance of chickens to the nematode, Ascaridia galli. 4 Ackert et al. (1927, 1931a) presented evidence that vitamin A deficiency also was detrimental to the resistance of the fowl to this nematode. Further evidence of vitamin B (complex) as a factor in resistance was presented by Ackert and Nolf (1931b). An investigation of vitamin D as a factor in resistance showed that the presence of this vitamin in the ration did not retard worm development but served to protect fowls against effects of ascarid parasitism (Ackert and Spindler, 1929). Literature on vitamins as factors in the resistance of animals and man to ascarid parasites is . . .

IN REVIEWING the literature on Capillaria in poultry, Platt and Schwabe (1958) reported that hens infested with the worms had lower egg production and higher mortality than hens which were not infested. A number of chemicals have been used in an attempt to free birds of Capillaria worms. Rietz (1927) found Kamala, Kamala plus soda, turpentine plus linseed oil, areca and areca plus soda to be of little value, while carbon tetrachloride was effective. On the other hand, Levine (1938) stated that carbon tetrachloride as well as tetrachloroethylene and tobacco dust were ineffective. Frazier (1959) reported in one field trial that hygromycin was effective against Capillaria obsignata (columbae) and Ascaridia galli. In another trial he reported that hygromycin gave partial control of C. obsignata and complete control of Heterakis gallinae. More recently Strout (1965) has stated that N-hydroxynaphthalimide diethyl phosphate had a significant effect on Capillaria worm control in poultry… .

ACCORDING to some Egyptian veterinarians and agriculturists poultry parasites are serious enough to constitute a limiting factor in the widespread establishment of high-producing standard breeds of poultry under Egyptian farm conditions. A program of testing comparative disease susceptibility between native and imported standard breeds is highly desirable since the need for improvement in genetic stock is generally recognized. Replacement of the present poor genetic stock with a high-producing strain, would yield great benefits to the small farmer who depends upon eggs as his chief cash crop. However, any extensive program of stock replacement requires a knowledge of the importance of parasites and diseases so that control programs may be set up concomitant with importation or other stock improvement programs. Should a high degree of resistance be demonstrated in native stock, breeding programs might be established to combine this desirable trait in more productive stock. In order to test the hypothesis …

TWO main avenues of investigation are employed by agricultural parasitologists to aid domestic animals in attaining maximum efficient production. The first of these, medication, is directed most properly at infections carried by members of the breeding flocks because their infections are reservoirs for the exposure of new generations of animals. Secondarily, medicated feeds have come into use to protect against and minimize the effects of parasitic infections in animals constituting an individual generation. Control of parasitism appears to rest upon proper and efficient use of medication. The other basis of investigation is in connection with determining relationships of nutrient materials in the diet of animals to the ability of the animals to withstand, or tolerate, effects of infection. Both types of investigation are based upon modern and efficient methods of sanitation and management. While present antibiotic agents perhaps have been developed primarily to combat infections caused by bacteria, the later . . .

INTRODUCTION MANY observations have been made which suggest that parasitic diseases produce a disruption in host physiology. One physiological disturbance often associated with such infections of poultry origin is muscular weakness. Ackert and Herrick (1928) clearly described the propressive weakness that occurs in chickens infected with Ascaridia galli. Stafseth (1931) associated leg weakness with duodenal coccidiosis. Indeed, chronic coccidiosis has often been implicated as one of the causes of poultry paralysis (Beach and Freeborn, 1930; Mayhew, 1932). The fact that taeniasis also caused paralysis in poultry has been reported (Bayon, 1930; Stafseth, 1931). The myasthenia associated with cecal coccidiosis is detectable on the third day after infection and becomes progressively more severe as the coccidia develop in the mucosa of the cecal pouches. By the end of the fourth day as hemorrhage into the cecal pouches becomes appreciable muscle shows pronounced reduction in glycogen content (Waxler, 1941; Pratt, 1944) and …

FOR a number of years, it has been known that nicotine effectively removes ascarids (Ascaridia galli) of chickens. However, because of its extreme toxicity in strengths sufficient to expel the worms, its administration heretofore has been fraught with considerable danger to the health of the birds. Nicotine first assumed a practical role in the treatment of ascariasis of poultry in 1923. In that year, Dr. Stanley B. Freeborn, California Agricultural Experiment Station, Berkeley, conceived the idea of using Lloyd’s alkaloidal reagent as a carrier or holding agent for the nicotine which, in this case, was in the form of nicotine sulfate solution. An amount equal to 350 to 400 milligrams of the mixture was placed in a No. 2 gelatin capsule for administration to each infested bird. The “University Capsule,” as it was designated, proved to be such an improvement over any previous method of treatment, from the standpoint of . . .

THE quaternary ammonium compounds are of great interest because of their germicidal efficacy. The investigations by Karloff et al. (1942), Kramer and Sedwitz (1944), Botwright (1946) and Mallman and Zaikowski (1947) showed these compounds were remarkably effective when highly diluted. According to McCulloch et al. (1948) quaternary ammonium compounds are adopted in practically every field in which germicides are used. They stated that during the last war the Navy gave instructions for their use in cleaning sick rooms, cooking utensils, drinking glasses, surgical instruments, linen and towels. A highly diluted solution of alkyl-dimethyl-benzyl-ammonium chloride, a quaternary ammonium compound, was found to destroy bacteria in 5–10 seconds without the use of heat (Mallman and Zaikowski, 1947). Heineman (1937) found that the compound was fungicidal, and unlike other commonly used germicides, its germicidal properties were retained for long periods when highly diluted. Recently it was found that a mixture consisting of five . . .

INTRODUCTION A TISSUE phase in the life cycle of the fowl nematode, Ascaridia galli, was announced by Ackert (1923) who found that the habitat or location of the larvae included the intestinal mucosa as well as the lumen. The next year Guberlet (1924) observed that chickens heavily infected with A. galli died from toxemia accompanied with intestinal irritation on the 10th to the 12th day following exposure to embryonated ova of this ascarid. Ackert and Herrick (1928) found that the most harmful period in the life cycle of this nematode was about 14 days after exposure of the host to embryonated ova. This finding was later corroborated by Ackert (1931) when he reported that irritation of the mucosal lining coincided with the tissue phase of the parasite which occurred between the 10th and 17th day subsequent to feeding embryonated ova to the host. More recently the importance of the various phases …

INTRODUCTION UP TO now, CS2 has not been the drug of choice to remove Ascaridia galli from chickens. Its limited use against this parasite is probably related to its toxicity, difficult administration, and availability of more nearly satisfactory anthelmintics. Recently, CS2 has been combined with a piperazine compound. 4 This anthelmintic was tested by Shumard (1957) and found to be highly efficacious for removing chicken ascarids. Use of CS2 in this form should renew interest in it as an anthelmintic. The first reported use of CS2 to remove A. galli from chickens was by Roberts (1937). His work embodied a series of studies involving numerous anthelmintics so time permitted only a cursory study of CS2. Later, Knapp and Hansen (1954); in a preliminary report, showed that the drug could be used effectively to remove A. galli. Because of limited information, the present study was initiated to investigate the action of CS2 …

THE investigations by Hewitt, White, Wallace, Stewart, Kushner and SubbaRow (1947) and Hewitt, Kushner, Stewart, White, Wallace and SubbaRow (1947) showed that 1-diethylcarbamyl-4-methylpiperazine hydrochloride (Caricide) had a marked effect against Litomosoides carinii infections in rats. The same substance had a similar influence upon Dirofilaria immitis in dogs (Hewitt, Kushner, Stewart, White, Wallace and SubbaRow, 1947); Wuchereria bancrofti in man (Santiago-Stevenson, Oliver-Gonzalez and Hewitt, 1947); and adult Trichinella spiralis in white rats (Oliver-Gonzalez and Hewitt, 1947). In studies of ascariasis, Kanegis (1948) reported that in cats diethylcarbamazine dihydrogen citrate approached 100 percent efficiency. He stated that the optimum dose was 25 mg. per pound of body weight. Hewitt, Wallace, White and SubbaRow (1948) obtained similar results in dogs infected with ascarids. Caricide was also shown by Oliver-Gonzalez and Hewitt (Hewitt, Wallace, White and SubbaRow, 1948) to possess activity against Ascaris Lumhricoides infections in man. The purpose of the present investigation was . . .

SURVEYS of natural outbreaks, of ascariasis in the chicken have been reported. An examination conducted by Ackert (1930) showed that 49 percent of 1,000 chickens from various farms in Kansas harbored Ascaridia galli. In Canada, Baker et al. (1929) found A. galli very numerous in the vicinity of Macdonald College. The incidence of ascariasis in chickens from eastern Tennessee was reported by Todd (1946, 1947) to be 42–43 percent. The data available are largely from mature birds many of which were managed under range conditions. In broiler areas of North Georgia birds are raised on wood shavings in concrete or dirt floor houses and marketed by the 12th week. Customarily, the shavings are removed and the houses are cleaned before each flock is started. Even though no surveys have been reported to determine the incidence of ascariasis in birds raised under these conditions, most producers in this area have adopted . . .

In view of the reported excellent performance of sodium fluoride as an anthelmintic against large roundworms in swine an investigation was initiated to determine the efficacy of the compound in eliminating roundworms in growing and adult chickens and its effect on egg production. Habermann et al. (1945) reported that a ration containing 1.5% of the drug given for 10 consecutive days was devoid of anthelmintic action in 2 chicks. Later Enzie and Jaquette (1947) reported on the unsuitability of sodium fluoride as an anthelmintic for chickens. They reported on its activity against both Ascaridia galli and Heterakis gallinae in 27 mature birds. They found the drug ineffective against heterakids at all levels. Against ascarids, the effective doses were too toxic when administered by capsule or in the feed to preclude any practical anthelmintic use of sodium fluoride in chickens. Experiment I of the present study revealed that single doses of . . .

IT HAS been shown that the resistance of a host to parasite infections may be lowered by a generally deficient diet (Foster and Cort, 1931; and Shorb, 1933), inadequate vitamin content of the diet (Zimmerman, Vincent and Ackert, 1926; Ackert et al., 1927, 1931a, b; and Ackert and Spindler, 1929), and protein source (Ackert and Beach, 1933; and Riedel and Ackert, 1950). It was reported by Almquist and Grau (1944) that a mixture of essential amino acids could replace a protein supplement in the diet of a growing chick. Since then it was found that lysine (Riedel, 1950), tryptophane (Riedel, 1954a), and leucine (Riedel, 1955) did not alter the resistance of chickens to Ascaridia galli. Todd (1951) recovered larger and more worms from chicks fed a high methionine diet, and Riedel (1954b) noted that adequate glycine increased worm length but not worm number. Since Almquist (1945, 1947) reported phenylalanine to …

TETRAMISOLE is a potent, orally and parenterally effective broad spectrum anthelmintic. Studies in various species of domestic animals and in man have shown tetramisole to affect numerous species of roundworms (Thienpont et al., 1966). A single oral administration of 40 mg. tetramisole base per kg. body weight has a 96 to 100% effect against adult and immature forms of Capillaria obsignata (Madsen, 1945), Heterakis gallinarum (Schrank, 1788) and Ascaridia galli (Schrank, 1788). The present paper deals with the effect produced by a single or repeated administration of 40 mg. tetramisole base per kg. body weight, on growth rate and feed efficiency of healthy broilers, free from intestinal parasites. EXPERIMENTAL In a first experiment three hundred and twenty male broiler type chicks (Hybro) were used. They were supplied from a commercial hatchery ** as one day old chicks issued from the same breed. The birds were wing banded individually, raised in electrically …

IT IS commonly known that cecal coccidiosis may produce definite symptoms and a high rate of mortality in chickens (Tyzzer, 1932; Mayhew, 1932; and Riedel, et al., 1949). An analysis of 30,000 autopsies performed on chickens was reported by Hoffmann and Stover (1942). They found that coccidiosis was the most prevalent disease in chickens 2–12 weeks of age. Evidence of the deleterious effects of ascariasis in poultry was presented by Ackert and Titus (1924), Ackert and Herrick (1928), and Clapham (1937). Baker, et al., (1929); Ackert (1930); and Todd (1946, 1947) showed that the incidence of natural infections by Ascaridia galli was quite high. The present investigator has observed from autopsies that chickens are often concurrently infected with ascarids and coccidia. Following this observation Riedel (1950) made a study to determine if simultaneous infection by both parasites is purely a matter of chance resulting from the high incidence of . . .

Several worm parasites have been detected within market eggs. The intestinal nematode (Ascaridia galli) has been reported most frequently. Cecal worms (Heterakis spp.), oviduct flukes (Prosthogonimus spp.) and a tapeworm (Cestoda) also have been recovered from eggs. Descriptions of 102 such inclusions are reviewed or reported for the first time. After some training, candlers can recognize A. galli through the unopened egg shell. Detection and removal of such eggs from marketing channels is highly desirable both for consumers and egg producers. Worm control in poultry flocks to prevent such eggs from reaching commercial markets is also reviewed.

INTRODUCTION THERE are numerous reports in the literature of the presence of an antitryptic (antienzyme) agent in the living tissues and blood sera of animals. However, no report of antitryptic action by extracts of the large roundworm, Ascaridia galli, has been found. In view of the fact that Ascaradia galli lives in the lumen of the small intestine of the bird, where it is continuously in contact with tryptic enzymes, the question arises as to how it is able to resist the proteolytic action of these enzymes. REVIEW OF LITERATURE The nature of antiferments has been studied in considerable detail but there is no agreement as to their mode of action. They are destroyed by heat at about 70°C. by the action of dilute acids, and by prolonged standing. Burge (1915) suggests that the protection of parasites and perhaps the normal alimentary epithelium against proteolytic enzymes depends upon the active . . .

In order to evaluate the possible effect of A. galli on digestion, the activity of trypsin, chymotrypsin, amylase and lipase in the intestinal contents of infected and non-infected chicks, was determined. The activity of chymotrypsin, trypsin and amylase was reduced in the jejunum of infected animals; lipase was unaffected. No significant effects of infection were noted in other intestinal segments.

A PREVIOUS report from this laboratory presented experimental evidence of the anthelmintic action of three antibiotic agents, penicillin, streptomycin, and neomycin, following continuous oral administration, against the large intestinal roundworm of chickens, Ascaridia galli. The report was based on three separate experiments. The action of penicillin appeared to be somewhat superior to the action of the other two antibiotics tested. In comparison with exposed birds fed only a basal, or control, ration, exposed birds fed a penicillin ration developed fewer and smaller worms following controlled exposures, and gained more weight in the test period, Todd (1951). In the above experiments the recovery of fewer worms at postmortem in specific groups of experimental birds was associated with greater weight gains. The presence of added B12 in certain test rations, however, did not allow superior weight gains in a given group to be ascribed to reduction of parasite numbers alone. The superior . . .