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The presented paper is a review of selected alcoholism typologies, some of which include the relatively well-functioning type. The analysis covers widely known typologies, deeply grounded in addiction psychology, as well as other research, all of which consider the shared characteristics of high-functioning alcoholics. Thus, the aim of the paper is to provide an overview of these classifications of alcoholics, focusing on the groups whose traits are consistent with the image of high-functioning alcoholics described by Moss et al. (2007). It was found that the majority of classifications include a subtype showing features similar to high-functioning alcoholics (such as older age of alcohol use initiation, later onset of alcohol dependence, mild course of alcohol dependence, higher psychosocial functioning, low prevalence of familial alcoholism, low rates of comorbid psychiatric disorders, and lower level of withdrawal symptoms compared to other groups). However, there are significant differences in each of the mentioned typologies. Further research should expand on the subject, aiming to find particular personality and temperamental traits, personal resources and factors associated with undergoing addiction therapy/ treatment, its course and maintaining abstinence in high-functioning alcoholics. Moreover, negative consequences of alcohol abuse in high-functioning alcoholics should be assessed. Such research could have both practical (supporting the diagnosis and effective therapy) and theoretical implications (allowing for the development of a conceptual framework for highfunctioning alcoholics and the extent to which they differ from other types).

This article is devoted to empirical research of adolescents’ suicidal thoughts in the context of the cognitive-behavioural approach. In Kazakhstan, this type of research is being conducted for the first time. The studies are conducted in general educational institutions of Kazakhstan with the consent of teachers, parents and participants themselves. The aim of this paper is to study irrational attitudes that generate cognitive distortions and become predictors for suicidal thoughts as well as adolescents’ attitude towards parents, family, teachers, the same and opposite sexes, to their doubts and fears, feelings of guilt, the past and future, and to life goals. Research methods applied in this paper are CP-45 by Yunatskevich, Irrational Beliefs Test (IBT) by Ellis, Sachs and Levy’s The Sentence Completion Test, and the psychological verbal and communicative method “Conversation.” Study results revealed the most commonly used cognitive distortions formed as irrational settings such as “Frustrating tolerance,” “Owes to yourself ”, “Owes to others” and “Catastrophisation,” which are the reasons for low self-esteem and irrational thinking to be generated. Other main reasons are negative attitude towards one’s own future or own past, and to their parents. In a risk group, adolescents represent dominance of irrational attitudes which are later transformed into a cognitive distortion of reality leading to suicidal thoughts. Suicide-oriented adolescents have a negative attitude to their own future and past and to their parents as well as socially oriented fears.

Insomnia is one of the most common disorders coexisting with depression, and sometimes precedes the development of depression by a number of months. During depressive episodes, insomnia affects 60–90% of patients. At the same time, insomnia is the most prevalent residual symptom of depression, which may persist after the resolution of depression itself in up to 40–50% of patients, causing significant distress. Consequently, normalisation of disturbed sleep is an important aspect of depression therapy. Inappropriate pharmacological treatment may significantly hinder the achievement of the desired therapeutic outcomes. The paper aims to address the recommended treatment of insomnia with coexisting depression, and to discuss the advantages and disadvantages of various pharmacotherapy options and non-pharmacological interventions. In addition, the paper summarises available data on the effect of agomelatine on sleep in patients with depression. Because of its melatoninergic activity the drug synchronises the disturbed circadian rhythm of numerous physiological processes including the sleep–wake cycle. Agomelatine is a particularly beneficial therapeutic choice for patients with depression and insomnia who are prescribed treatment with serotonin or serotonin and noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors, but are worried about the deterioration of sleep quality.

Introduction: Difficulty in perceiving and providing an appropriate cognitive interpretation of the stimuli originating from the body, combined with a difficulty in perceiving and describing emotions correctly, has been identified for a long time in patients with substance abuse and eating disorders. This first eidetic nucleus has been indissolubly linked to the difficulty in perceiving others as intelligible objects. Objective: The objective of this paper is to further the research into possible psychological factors underlying the deficit in the sensory consciousness of the Self, in which the internal image of the body and the person does not have a solid mental representation. In consequence, the relationship between the psychological and the somatic part of the Self seems vulnerable to psychopathological break-down. In this paper, sensation seeking is construed as an attempt to overcome an interoceptive, an exteroceptive and a proprioceptive difficulty. Craving and repetition of pathological behaviour is interpreted here as an attempt to reconstruct the body scheme in a Self which is fragmented or at a risk of fragmentation through the memory of the sensations experienced using an inanimate object, food or psychotropic substances. In relationship with them an increase in symbolic capability is impossible, as it is achievable only through a human relationship. Method: To corroborate this hypothesis, I undertook a single-case study of comorbidity with substance abuse and eating disorders. This research describes the application of an integrated method in which the use of standardised instruments as MMPI-2 (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory), EDI-2 (Eating Disorder Inventory) and TAS-20 (Toronto Alexithymia Scale), tested and retested in a frame time of 6 years, is accompanied by the interpretation of dreams, based on the theoretical platform of Massimo Fagioli’s Human Birth Theory, in order to achieve a greater diagnostic certainty as well as more definite therapeutic treatment. Results: Quantitatively, the patient’s positive reaction to psychotherapy is expressed by changes in the test–retest scale scores, while qualitatively the patient’s positive reaction to psychotherapy is expressed through changes in the dream activity. Conclusion: The results obtained encourage successive controls of the interpretative hypothesis about craving proposed in this paper with further studies.

In this paper we respond to the commentary that Atroszko (2018) wrote on our paper entitled “The Bergen Study Addiction Scale: psychometric properties of the Italian version. A pilot study” (Loscalzo and Giannini, 2018), which have both been published in the previous issue of this journal.

Among the psychopathological effects induced by stimulants there can be a variety of psychotic-like experiences that can resolve in a matter of hours or within a few days without clinical treatment, or can instead constitute initial symptoms of a primary psychosis. The objective of this paper is to focalise on a series of psychodynamic aspects, detectable by the analysis of relational dynamics brought into play by the person who has used substances and suffers a psychotic crisis. These aspects can be used as criteria of differential diagnosis to integrate the first assessment of those psychopathological characteristics described in literature which distinguish a toxic psychosis from a primary psychosis. The diagnostic process is thus developed with the method of clinical observation and evaluation, for which the essential cognitive tool is formed by the sensibility of the therapist and their capacity to evaluate the quality of the patient’s mental reactions to the stimulus provoked by the development of the therapeutic relationship, including oniric activity. This paper proposes, on the basis of many years of research and clinical experience, diagnostic criteria also in dream analysis, as oniric images can reveal hidden thoughts and dynamics that could be pathological. The theoretical platform to which reference is made and presented in detail in this paper is known as “Human Birth Theory” (Teoria della nascita), formulated by Massimo Fagioli in 1971. The therapist involved in the therapeutic relationship can stimulate the internal mental world of the patient, proposing himself/herself as both a diagnostic and therapeutic instrument. The interpretation can give back to the patient their selfknowledge and the possibility to transform their unconscious relational methods through the therapeutic process, as documented in two case reports presented in this paper. The case reports, explained in a form of single-case studies, describe the application of an integrated method in which the use of standardized instruments of assessment is flanked with the interpretation of oniric images in order to render greater diagnostic certainty as well as more incisive therapeutic treatment.

Background: The therapeutic relationship is one of the most important and independent predictors in psychotherapy. Therapeutic relationships take place in a social environment, which shapes the mentality of therapists. One of the important aspects of this environment is financialization, which is considered to be the most significant socioeconomic phenomenon characteristic of capitalism. The aim of this paper is to discuss the effect of financialization on the attitudes of psychotherapists and on the quality of care they provide. Discussion: The paper presents a theoretical analysis of the relationship between the primary constituents of the therapeutic relationship (i.e. trust, realness, individuality of approach, honesty, truth, ethics, the good of the patient) and the phenomena characteristic of the process of financialization (such as replacement of relationship for transaction, distrust, advertisement, statistics, profitability, acceptance of a lie, relativism, consumptionism, perception of own benefits). Summary: Financialization can change the therapeutic relationship through indiscriminate introjection of financialization by the therapist. The primary cognitive and behavioural effect of this process is a shift in the proportions between the foundations of therapeutic relationship towards the foundations of financialization (as defined in this article). To the best of our knowledge, this is the first article presenting the correlation between financialization and psychotherapy.

Aim: The aim of this paper was to present the effects of complex therapeutic interventions aimed to reduce the clinical manifestations and rehabilitation of social cognition and neurocognition deficits in a patient with acute bulimia nervosa, hospitalised in a 24-hour therapeutic department. Methods: The following tools were used to measure the severity of clinical manifestations: Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (SES), Eating Attitudes Test (EAT-26), Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and Snaith–Hamilton Pleasure Scale (SHAPS). Cognitive functions were measured using the Trail Making Test (TMT), the Stroop Test and the Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure Test (ROCF). The Faux Pas Test and selected tests from the Penn Computerized Neurocognitive Battery (CNB) were used to assess social cognitive functions. Results: The obtained results and observations, which were based on patient’s functioning during her stay in the department, indicate that the implemented therapeutic interventions contributed to a partial reduction in the severity of clinical symptoms. Although the cognitive functioning of the patient before hospital stay and after discharge remained at a similar level, a significant improvement was observed in social cognition.

Aim: The aim of the paper was to investigate the relationships between introducing family rules for phone and computer use, compliance with these rules and the frequency and methods of electronic media use, health, life satisfaction and relationships of adolescents with their parents. Materials and methods: An anonymous survey was conducted in Poland among 844 students aged 10–18 years (55.3% boys; 28.0% were primary school students, 42.3% were lower secondary school students, 29.7% were upper secondary school students; 45.3% were residents of big cities, with populations of over 100,000, 23.1% were residents of small towns and 31.6% were rural residents). The questionnaire included questions and scales relating to electronic media use (different activities and rules for the use of electronic media), health (self-rated health, subjective health complaints, life satisfaction) and family relations (clear communication, social support and shared activities). Results: A total of 97.7% of adolescents have access to a computer at home (no difference in terms of gender, age and place of residence), while 80.7% of adolescents have a computer or a laptop for their own exclusive use (the percentage grows with the level of education, from 77.4% to 87.6%); 87.4% of respondents own a device with Internet access, 97.1% have a mobile phone (girls slightly more often than boys: 98.6% vs. 95.8%). Adolescents who fail to comply with family rules on the use of electronic media dedicate the most amount of time to use these media for entertainment and face the most serious health and social consequences. Introduction of time restrictions by parents reduces the time devoted by adolescents to electronic media, but only the time spent on entertainment. Conclusions: Introduction and consistent compliance with the rules for using electronic media are important for good family relationships and are associated with clear communication, support, and spending time with parents.

Aim: The aim of the paper was to investigate the relationship between the level of the sense of meaning life and mental wellbeing as well as the fear of missing out in relation to gender, social class and family affluence. Method: The study used data from a pilot study conducted in Poland in 2017 before the main HBSC 2018 survey (Health Behaviour in School-aged Children). An anonymous survey was conducted in lower-secondary schools, in accordance with the international HBSC research protocol. The analyses were performed in a group of 539 students (46% of girls) attending grades 1–3 of lowersecondary schools (mean age 14.75 ± 0.99 years). The following tools were used in this research: Fear of Missing Out Scale (FOMO), Purpose in Life Test (PiL), Well-Being Index (WHO-5), and Family Affluence Scale (FAS). The results of univariate non-parametric analyses concerning the mean level of the above indices were presented. A generalised linear model for FOMO as a dependent variable was used with stepwise introduction of variables as a part of multivariate analysis. Results: Students with a high level of PiL showed a much higher life satisfaction and a lower level of FOMO than those with a low level of PiL. PiL increased in more affluent families. A significant correlation between PiL and FOMO was found in both genders, while a significant correlation between PiL and WHO-5 was shown only in girls. In the final model, only PiL was found to be a significant predictor of FOMO, while gender, grade, WHO-5 and FAS were rejected. Conclusions: Our study has some practical implications, such as how to avoid problematic social media use. Classes devoted to the meaning of life and the place in life should be organised.

Auditory hallucinations can be manifested in a variety of ways, as a single voice or multiple voices that comment, communicate instructions, offend or comfort. They can do it in the first person (“I’m hopeless. Everyone hates me”), the second person (“Run away from here,” “Kill yourself ”) or the third person (“She is good for nothing. She should jump off the bridge”). Hallucinations vary widely in content, form and dynamics. Some researchers believe that the experience of voices in people from various clinical groups is very similar (or even identical) and is transdiagnostic. Others draw attention to significant differences regarding the characteristics of voices. Verbal auditory hallucinations are commonly associated with schizophrenia. However, different studies show that this symptom was also reported by individuals with other disorders, and by healthy people as well. This led to developing a notion of a continuum, which suggests that the experience of hearing voices has similar qualities, no matter in which context it occurs. In this paper, we present psychological theories and neurobiological mechanisms offering explanations for verbal auditory hallucinations. We also elaborate on phenomenological aspects of voice hearing in patients from different diagnostic groups, and highlight their unique features. Finally, we stress the need for further, in-depth qualitative investigation of verbal auditory hallucinations in these groups, which could help clinicians choose more appropriate treatment solutions.

Non-compliance is one of the main challenges in the treatment of chronic conditions, including mental diseases and disorders. Up to 60% of patients with depression may present with the lack of therapeutic adherence. Non-compliance depends on multiple factors and is a complex phenomenon: it may involve one or more therapeutic regimens as well as be continuous or intermittent, intentional or unintentional by nature. Therapeutic non-adherence leads to multiple negative health-related and social consequences. It may increase hospitalisation rates and the risk of symptom recurrence as well as contribute to more severe depression, reduced therapeutic response and remission, and impaired functioning in depressive patients. It seems that adverse effects of drugs are one of the causes of non-compliance. The paper presents a literature review on the tolerance of different antidepressant therapies. Antidepressants were assessed for the risk of adverse effects most often reported by the study participants as the cause of pharmacotherapy discontinuation. Non-compliance, which depends on a number of variables, is also a common phenomenon in the group of patients with anxiety disorders. Knowledge on factors that have negative effects on therapeutic adherence among patients with depression and anxiety disorders combined with adequate interventions may contribute to improved treatment outcomes in patients with mental diseases and disorders.

Purpose: The main purpose of the study was to examine if life orientations of young adults (“being” or “having”) differentiate respondents with respect to the degree of life satisfaction. Material and methods: A total of 187 persons (143 woman and 44 man) aged 18 to 29 years were included in the study. The following methods were used in the study: sociodemographic questionnaire, Satisfaction with Life Scale by E. Diener, R.A. Emmons, R.J. Larson, S. Griffin and the Being and Having Orientations Scale of B. Grulkowski. Results: A life orientation is a kind of behaviour regulator, that set the direction of human activity. There is a distinction between a “being” orientation (which refers to spiritual values) and a “having” orientation (which refers to possessing material things) that are manifested in a variety of experiences, and is related to human thinking, feeling, and acting. Therefore, a life orientation may play a really important role in the satisfaction with life. Most of the respondents were characterised by a mixed orientation (“being–having”) and an average level of satisfaction with life. There is no significant difference in the level of satisfaction with life according to gender and the subject of studies. It was shown that people with the “being” orientation have greater satisfaction with life than people with the “having” orientation. The obtained results, which show no differences in satisfaction with life according to gender, are consistent with the earlier studies. And so is the result that people with the dominant of the “being” orientation have greater satisfaction with life, than those with the “having” orientation. Conclusions: Only few papers about “being” and “having” orientations have been published so far since the method used in the study occurs only in the Polish language and there is no data about its adaptations in different countries. Results of conducted research set the direction of educational impact and give the scientific basis for a well-known saying: money can’t buy happiness.

The aim of the article is to discuss the standards of clinical diagnosis in children and adolescents in the context of theoretical models and psychological practice. Contemporary clinical practice standards refer to evidence-based practice (including evidence-based psychological practice, EBPP). A correct interdisciplinary diagnosis, as in the global standards, is primarily required due to an observed increase in the prevalence of emotional problems, behavioural difficulties and mental disorders among younger and younger children. The clinical psychological diagnostic process plays a key role in this respect. It is a process that takes into account both the individual and developmental context as well as the biopsychosocial nature of difficulties experienced by the child. Inference based on the interview, observation and results of standardised psychological tools, referring to clinical research and scientific theories, is an essential part of this process. The paper discusses in detail the worldwide standards of a clinical psychological diagnostic process and the specificity of clinical diagnosis in children and adolescents. At the same time, guidelines for clinical psychological diagnosis in children and adolescents have been proposed in relation to the Polish realities of clinical practice. The authors prepared and shared a list of psychological tests for use in clinical assessment of children and adolescents. The list is divided based on the studied development period (early childhood, pre-school age, school age, adolescence) and the specificity of measuring psychological variables (diagnosis of development, intelligence, cognitive abilities, emotional and social competence and personality, language development, family context, symptoms of mental disorders). The proposed psychological test list corresponds to the contemporary approach to clinical diagnosis, taking into account both the psychological profile and the socio-cultural context of the examined person’s functioning (psychosocial diagnosis). The evidence-based practice and the proposed list of psychological tools assume that good clinical practice should be based not only on the clinician’s experience, but above all on verified, reliable data and available scientific research.

The paper by Loscalzo and Giannini titled “The Bergen Study Addiction Scale: psychometric properties of the Italian version. A pilot study” published in the current issue of “Psychiatria i Psychologia Kliniczna” (Journal of Psychiatry and Clinical Psychology) concerns the results of the study on an Italian validation of Bergen Study Addiction Scale (BStAS) (Atroszko, 2015; Atroszko et al., 2015).

Introduction: The contact which occurs between a medical professional and a patient involves the occurrence of phenomena concerning the control of emotions, called emotional labour. The aim of the paper was to review specialist literature relating to emotional labour present in medical occupations. Material and method: With the use of EBSCO, Medline, ScienceDirect, Ovid MEDLINE databases and the PubMed search engine, relevant English-language full text articles published in 2010– 2017 were selected. Results: Sixty-two articles were selected that complied with the assumed criteria for the description of the issue. The articles concerned four thematic groups: emotional labour occurrence in various medical professions, the intrapersonal aspects of emotional labour, the interpersonal and organisational aspects of emotional labour and the negative consequences of emotional labour. Conclusions: The number of review and source articles confirming the presence of emotional labour in medical professions is growing year by year. In the health care system, emotional labour is still not a widely acknowledged phenomenon, with hardly any specialist training courses aimed at employees, and few organisational changes that would favour constructive methods of copying with the negative consequences of emotional labour.

Electrotherapy is considered a very effective and safe therapeutic method. Its most frequently described adverse effect is the impairment of cognitive functions. Currently, the most commonly applied form of electrotherapy are bitemporal procedures and the most frequent and best-studied indication for its application are depressive disorders. A method combining high effectiveness with satisfactory safety is the bifrontal application of the electrodes, although study results are often inconsistent. An issue which should also be noted is the lack of studies comparing the effectiveness of bifrontal and bitemporal procedures in the reduction of positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia and assessing the safety of these methods in terms of the influence on cognitive functions. The present paper presents a clinical description of four patients with schizophrenia who have undergone electrotherapy procedures performed applying the bifrontal method. The decisive indication for applying the bifrontal procedures were the memory disturbances the persistence of which was reported by the patients during the application of bitemporal procedures. The analysed clinical cases indicate the effectiveness of the bifrontal electrotherapy procedures which was comparable with the effectiveness of bitemporal procedures with the simultaneous better toleration of the former. Improvement was observed in terms of paranoid, catatonic and negative schizophrenia symptoms. At the same time the patients reported subjectively better tolerance of the procedures, as well as improvement in the recalling of facts and events.

This paper is aimed at investigating the potential connection between the prevalence of eating disorders and sexual orientation, as well as to exploring the nature of the possible relationship. For that purpose, results of studies found in digital databases were searched and analysed. Such a link has been found to exist, yet its character is difficult to determine due to limited data, problems in classifying patients’ sexual orientation, or collecting honest answers to sensitive but crucial questions. Most studies on the subject have been conducted in the USA and, rather predictably, mainly among women. Higher incidence rates were found in non-heterosexual men and bisexual women. It is not clear if homosexual women are more susceptible as well. It may be a result of being exposed to unique risk factors, such as common body image dissatisfaction, fear of coming out, or falling a victim to bullying. The lack of family support among sexual minorities also seems to be a significant factor – not only regarding the development of eating disorders but their effective treatment as well. This knowledge may be helpful in the prevention of eating disorders, making clinical examination more accurate and facilitating adjustments of therapy for people with eating disorders. Further research is needed, including more eating disorders and sexual orientation groups.

Alopecia areata (also known as spot baldness) is a disease with multifactorial aetiology, including genetic, hormonal, autoimmune and psychological factors as well as nervous system disorders. This disorder belongs to the group of dermatological conditions modified by psychological factors. Clinical experience indicates that stress and psychological aspects contribute significantly to the onset and/or exacerbation of alopecia areata. Pharmacological treatment of this dermatosis is often ineffective or insufficient. Therefore, a holistic approach to the disease, including both medical and psychological aspects, is crucial. It is emphasised in the subject literature that some forms of psychotherapy and pharmacotherapy used in patients with alopecia areata improve their psychophysical condition, and, consequently, stimulate the regrowth of their hair. Research has shown that cognitive-behavioural therapy complements dermatological treatment of alopecia areata, improving the quality of life of patients. The aim of cognitive and behavioural techniques is, on the one hand, to change the maladaptive negative convictions about oneself, the world, and the disease, and, on the other hand, to acquire the ability to cope with negative emotional states and difficult situations, such as a disease. The aim of the paper is to present the results of a literature review on the efficiency of pharmacotherapy and the role of cognitive-behavioural therapy in alopecia areata.

Receiving information on child’s disease or disability is a very difficult and often traumatic experience for the parents. Researchers investigating this issue indicate an array of negative parental emotional reactions such as: a sense of loss, loneliness, shock, mutual blaming, uncertainty, anxiety. Early intervention, understood as interdisciplinary services provided by physiotherapists, doctors, pedagogues, psychologists, and other specialists in the first years of child’s life, is equally needed by both children themselves and their parents, who, owing to the provided education and support, mature to the role of a parent-caretaker-therapist. The paper will address the results of a research conducted among parents of children with rare genetic diseases. The respondents shared their experiences associated with early intervention, assessed the quality of the received support as well as its effects on the child and the family. The study was conducted based on qualitative research methodology. I conducted narrative interviews with the mothers and fathers of children affected by rare chromosomal disorders. The analysis of narration focused on the experiences associated with implemented or non-implemented early intervention. Some of the parents of children with rare chromosomal syndromes had no opportunity to participate in early intervention; respondents in this group complained about specialists ignoring the reported problems and described disease symptoms as well as being involved in a “therapeutic pursuit” for a long time. The other group included parents participating in early intervention programmes. The experience of a rare disease increased their need to expand their knowledge on the disease and treatment options, which certainly presented a significant challenge for specialists. However, even in such a difficult situation it is possible to implement a model early intervention programme, as reported by one of respondents.

The content of this paper is a report on activities in children’s facilities and their ability to influence parenting skills in terms of institutional childcare at an early age. Children’s facilities (infant homes, children’s homes and children’s centres) provide comprehensive care for children and parents in cases where, for various reasons, a child’s all-round development is disrupted or their life is in danger. The main purpose of these facilities is to provide adequate childcare as well as to support families when restoring basic functions. On the basis of a survey conducted in children’s facilities, the most frequent difficulties in exercising parenting skills are identified, and subsequently, information on the extent to which children’s facilities contribute to the development of parenting skills and help in the rehabilitation of a family is outlined.

Objective: The paper brings together and summarizes the results of a study carried out in 2011–2015, aimed at analysing circumstances and reasons underlying adolescent suicidal attempts. Material and methods: The studied group comprised 115 patients hospitalised due to having attempted suicide, aged 13–19 years old, based in 3 voivodeships, namely the Świętokrzyskie Voivodeship, Lubelskie Voivodeship, and Podkarpackie Voivodeship. The results of the study have been subject to quantitative and qualitative analysis. Results: Our analysis has demonstrated that in the opinion of 95% of the patients another suicide previously committed in their environment inspired their own suicidal attempt. A significant proportion of the participants of the study (88%) claims suicidal behaviours in a person’s environment to be conducive to similar behaviours not only in adolescents, but across all age groups alike. A majority of participants have admitted possessing a lack of sufficient knowledge concerning mental health and wellbeing. Nor do they receive effective help, feeling emotional distress, yet failing to meet with any response on the part of their relatives and friends, who seem not to take teenagers’ psychological condition seriously. Suicidal and depressive disposition is commonly regarded as a sign of mere moodiness, fanciness, being spoilt, or being prone to playing practical jokes. According to the majority of the participants (71%), their relatives had directly influenced their decision to attempt suicide. As much as 88% of the responses provided in the study indicated causes stemming from inadequate communication. Teenagers’ attempts to talk about death-related issues (suicidal issues) failed, not being met with understanding on the part of their parents and other caregivers. Conclusions: There is a need for education, prophylaxis, and raising social awareness concerning the problem of suicides. Education on a broad scale is necessary to enable unobstructed access to important information, inter alia through cultural and social events, preventive campaigns, workshops, voluntary help, media etc.

Introduction: Inappropriate sinus tachycardia is generally defined as an elevated resting heart rate (>90–100 bpm) with an exaggerated response to physical or emotional stress and a clearly sinus mechanism which is not secondary to a diagnosed somatic disease. Anxiety, a significant risk factor for cardiovascular disease, is recently recognized as a crucial issue in younger and older adults, with a causal relation to other risk factors, such as depression, substance use, overweight, sleep difficulties, or a sedentary life style. The aim of the study was to evaluate a possible relation between the level of anxiety, control of emotions in patients with manifestation of inappropriate sinus tachycardia and diagnosis of this syndrome. Material and methods: The study included 33 female patients with inappropriate sinus tachycardia (age range 31.8 ± 8.72) and 33 women (28.7 ± 4.4) without any cardiac diseases. The diagnosis of inappropriate sinus tachycardia was given by a cardiologist during hospitalisation of the patients in the 2nd Department of Cardiology and Department of Electrocardiology, Medical University of Lodz, Lodz, Poland. For psychological assessment the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and Courtauld Emotional Control Scale both self-report, paper and pencil inventories were used. Results: A statistically significant difference was found between the group of women with inappropriate sinus tachycardia and the group of healthy women regarding the Anxiety-Trait. The results of the study have shown no other statistically significant differences between tested groups. Conclusions: Inappropriate sinus tachycardia is related to increased anxiety. More clinical trials are needed to confirm its psychogenic basis.

This article presents the prevalence of auditory verbal hallucinations (AVHs) across the life span in various clinical and nonclinical groups in childhood, adolescence, and adult populations. Data on the occurrence of this phenomenon in the general population vary and usually are in the range of 5–28%. The prevalence of non-clinical AVHs is similar in childhood, ado‑ lescence and adulthood. It seems possible that the mechanisms which cause AVHs in non-clinical populations are different from those which are behind AVHs presentations in psychotic illness. In this paper the characteristics of differentiating clini‑ cal forms of hallucinations from the non-clinical ones are discussed. These are: the location of sensations, their content, inhibition control disorders, metacognitive disorders, emotional dysregulation, stress level, and their influence on functioning dis‑ orders. Considered as etiological factors are abnormal activities of some areas of the brain and abnormal pruning. The triggering factors of both types of perception disorders are traumatic events and psychoactive substances use. Long-term studies have shown that the factors which lead to the transformation of non-clinical hallucinations into their clinical forms are: genetic predisposition, schizotypy, at-risk mental state, and stress. The future research needs to focus on the comparison of underlying factors and mechanisms that lead to the onset of AVHs in both patients and non-clinical populations.

Aim of paper: Investigate the factors influencing health of infants born to women suffering from schizophrenia. Material and methods: It has been designed as a retrospective subjective evaluation of mental state of women with diagnosis of schizophrenia during pregnancy. The survey was conducted among 64 women aged 20‑44 years, who were diagnosed before becoming pregnant. Each enrolled patient underwent psychiatric examination first, then filled questionnaire con‑ structed by the author of the study. Results and conclusions: The results that were obtained confirmed the hypothesis that children of women with schizophrenia more often than those born by healthy women have serious health complica‑ tions, and infant mortality rate in this group is higher than in the general population. Better outcomes have been demon‑ strated in obstetric married women, living with her husband during pregnancy, women who had not experienced miscar‑ riages in past, who gave birth on time and became pregnant during the remission of symptoms of schizophrenia. Women who have been diagnosed with schizophrenia earlier (on average 5 years) gave birth to healthy children more often than women, who received diagnosis later. The compliance to the treating psychiatrist recommendations and the first pregnancy are both favourable prognostics of good health of the newborn child. Other analysed factors haven’t had significant influ‑ ence on children’s health.

Acts of autoaggression are a more and more frequent reason for psychiatric hospitalisation of adolescents. Within the last years the number of patients committing acts of deliberate self‑harm without suicidal intensions almost doubled. Deliberate self‑harm (DSH) is defined as an act of direct destructiveness, in which a person wants to commit self‑harm immediately, without an intention of killing her/himself. In this paper we present the results of the study on the level and direction of aggression and the sense of control among inpatients (N=187) of the Department of Adolescent Psychiatry, Central University Hospital in Łódź. The studied group consisted of patients with deliberate self‑harm (DSH group, N=88), whereas the control group comprised the patients without such behaviours (non‑DSH group, N=99). For the study we recruited patients who were admitted to the hospital due to various mental disorders – 58 boys, mean age 16.81, SD=1.25, and 129 girls, mean age 16.5, SD=1.38. The mean age of all patients was 16.59 (SD=1.35). Patients with men‑ tal retardation were excluded from the study, due to expected difficulties with understanding the questions. We used the IPSA (Inventory of Psychological Syndrome of Aggression) and “Delta” (test invented by Drwal, designed for evalua‑ tion of the sense of control). In the DSH group we found a significantly higher level of aggression, directed both inwards and outwards, a greater tendency of retaliatory behaviours and by far lower sense of internal control of one’s behaviours, as compared to the non‑DSH group. Therapeutic programs for patients with DSH should aim at the reduction of aggres‑ sion and the development of internal control over one’s behaviours.