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This study investigated effects of applying cognitive-behavioral group therapy on recurrent headaches. Among Shiraz University female students complaining of headaches, 20 patients, each reporting either migraine or tension-type headaches and who met the 1988 International Headache Society diagnosis criteria for migraine and tension-type headaches, formed two groups. Analysis showed cognitive-behavioral group therapy decreased headache index significantly. Therapeutic response patterns on dependent variables were similar for patients with migraines and those with tension-type headaches.

Data were collected on 10 newswriters in a newspaper's newsroom. These included self-reported stress ratings and saliva samples for secretary immunoglobulin A (IgA) analysis. The stress ratings and saliva samples were taken initially and after three 30-min. periods. The first time period was a baseline measure and involved the workers engaging in their usual tasks. At Time 2 music was presented for 30 min. while workers engaged in their normal activities. At Time 3 workers resumed their normal duties. Findings showed an increase in IgA that was not statistically significant, a reduction in stress during the music period that was statistically significant, and a statistically significant negative correlation between stress and IgA.

This study tested the hypothesis that relaxation by guided imagery improves working-memory performance of healthy participants. 30 volunteers (both sexes, ages 17–56 years) were randomly assigned to one of three groups and administered the WAIS–III Letter-Number Sequencing Test before and after 10-min. treatment with guided imagery or popular music. The control group received no treatment. Groups' test scores were not different before treatment. The mean increased after relaxation by guided imagery but not after music or no treatment. This result supports the hypothesis that working-memory scores on the test are enhanced by guided imagery and implies that human information processing may be enhanced by prior relaxation.

To assess the effect of progressive relaxation training on insomnia in institutionalised chronic alcoholic men, 22 subjects between the ages of 20 and 60 years, were randomly allocated to treatment and control groups. The treatment group received 10 sessions of progressive relaxation training over a 2-wk. period after which both groups completed a postexperimental questionnaire. Analysis showed a significant improvement in the sleeping patterns of the treated group, but no changes in the sleeping patterns of the control group. In addition, a distribution-free two-sample permutation test to compare mean differences of the groups confirmed that a significantly greater change occurred in the quality of the sleeping patterns of the treated group.

Outcomes of seven treatment trials comparing cognitive behavioral therapy to treatment with tricyclic antidepressant medication in major depressive disorder have been quite similar to one another. This led us to question whether treatment outcome in time-limited studies reflected a unique effect of cognitive behavioral therapy. To test the uniqueness hypothesis, relaxation training, a nonpharmacologic, noncognitive treatment, was chosen as a comparison for cognitive behavioral therapy as well as drug therapy. Treatment duration was 16 weeks. The sample of 37 patients treated for major depressive disorder was less depressed than those previously studied. For both cognitive behavioral therapy and relaxation training, outcome of depression was superior to that of tricyclic antidepressant medication by endpoint analysis. The posttreatment scores on the Beck Depression Inventory of 82% of the group receiving cognitive behavioral therapy improved to a Beck Depression Inventory score ≤9 which was not significantly greater than that for the group receiving relaxation training.(73%), so a unique effect was not demonstrated for cognitive behavioral therapy. The outcome for tricyclic antidepressant medication (29% improved to criteria) was significantly worse than that for cognitive behavioral therapy. The patient's pretreatment initial expectancy was not predictive.

In Exp. 1 the effects of progressive and imaginal relaxation training were examined for 51 psychiatric inpatients. Relaxation Inventory scores indicated significant changes in the direction of greater relaxation for each training procedure; there were no significant differences in responses to the two types of training. Significant relaxation effects were found for each of three training sessions, but the effects were not cumulative. Only one patient was withdrawn because reaction to training was overtly negative. Exp. 2 was an analysis of Exp. 1 data in combination with data from a prior study. Patients and college students responded much alike but students reached greater relaxation within sessions. Further experimentation on relaxation training with psychiatric inpatients appears justified.

The purpose of this study was to assess the psychophysiological stress-reducing properties of progressive relaxation compared with hypnosis, and deep abdominal breathing compared with a baseline condition, while controlling for hypnotizability. 231 nursing students experienced the baseline procedure and progressive relaxation in Session 1 and deep abdominal breathing and hypnosis in Session 2 about a week later. Before and after each technique peripheral skin temperature and pulse rate were assessed. Separate analyses of variance, computed for the first and second sets of techniques, indicated that progressive relaxation and hypnosis both increased skin temperature and reduced pulse rate, suggesting reduced psychophysiological responsivity. Deep abdominal breathing was associated with a significant reduction in physiological responsivity (skin temperature) relative to baseline. Hypnotic susceptibility had no effect on the psychophysiological measures.

To examine the influence of asthma on patients' self-perceptions, 48 children with light to moderate asthma and 41 healthy children were selected to complete Harter's Self-perception Profile for children. No differences between the groups were observed. Then, to assess the effects of a psychological asthma treatment programme on self-perception, 27 of the asthmatic children were selected and allocated to three groups of 9 patients. The first of these groups received an asthma self-management programme, the second received that programme plus training in progressive relaxation, and the third (as control) only standard pharmacological treatment. Immediately after intervention and at 6- and 12-mo. follow-ups subjects again completed Harter's profile on which no significant changes were observed.

A meta-analysis of 26 studies was conducted to assess whether more complex forms of psychotherapy would be superior to control treatments of either biofeedback, progressive muscle relaxation, or both. Consistent with hypotheses, more complex treatments provided a small, significant improvement over biofeedback and progressive muscle relaxation ( r = .09). A subset of the more complex behavioral treatments accounted for most of this small incremental effectiveness of more complex treatments ( r = .15). Possible sources of this incremental effectiveness are discussed.

One of the difficulties in researching adherence to relaxation training is accurate self-monitoring. Here, a small form that fits into the case of the relaxation cassette tape is described that provides a convenient means of documenting practice, including whether the person practiced, if the practice was beneficial, and several specifics about the particular practice. A five-week trial with 36 undergraduate students indicated that it is a useful method for assessing adherence to relaxation training.

ABC Relaxation Theory proposes 15 psychological relaxation-related states (R-States): Sleepiness, Disengagement, Physical Relaxation, Mental Quiet, Rested/Refreshed, At Ease/At Peace, Energized, Aware, Joy, Thankfulness and Love, Prayerfulness, Childlike Innocence, Awe and Wonder, Mystery, and Timeless/Bound-less/Infinite. The present study summarizes the results of 13 separate factor analyses of immediate relaxation-related states, states associated with recalled relaxation activities, relaxation dispositions, and relaxation motivations on a combined sample of 1,904 individuals (group average ages ranged from 28–40 yr.). Four exploratory factor analyses of Smith Relaxation Inventories yielded 15 items that most consistently and exclusively load (generally at least .70) on six replicated factors’. These items included happy, joyful, energized, rested, at peace, warm, limp, silent, quiet, dozing, drowsy, prayerful, mystery, distant, and indifferent. Subsequent factor analyses restricted to these items and specifying six factors were performed on 13 different data sets. Each yielded the same six-factor solution: Factor 1: Centered Positive Affect, Factor 2: Sleepiness, Factor 3: Disengagement, Factor 4: Physical Relaxation, Factor 5: Mental Quiet, and Factor 6: Spiritual. Implications for ABC Relaxation Theory are discussed.

This study examined whether after 20 sessions over 10 weeks of Jacobson's muscle relaxation accompanied by encouragement of positive self-esteem academic examination scores of 22 undergraduate college students would improve by comparison with those of a control group of 30 students. The relaxation group had significantly higher examination grades than the control group, but there was no significant mean difference between the groups on the Cattell and Scheier Anxiety Scale or a two-item measure of self-esteem.

Alopecia areata, a common cause of hair loss, is generally considered the consequence of an autoimmune process. Both physiological and psychological factors have been implicated. Previous studies have not incorporated behavior modification in their treatment designs. In this study, three treatment techniques (hair massage, relaxation procedures, and monetary reward) were applied to a 16-year-old male with a five-year history of alopecia areata. Comparison for seven months without treatment versus seven months with treatment showed that loss of hair was markedly reduced after three months of treatment. During the last four months of the study, new hair growth was evidenced.

30 undergraduate students participated in a study to assess whether tactile manipulation in the form of popping sealed plastic air-capsules would be stress-reducing. Three of the four dependent measures were significantly changed; subjects reported feeling significantly more energized, less tired, and more calm after popping the capsules. Some advantages to this technique over existing ones include that this technique involves minimum ability, essentially no training or practice, and little likelihood of paradoxical anxiety effects that have been shown to accompany meditative relaxation techniques in some subjects.

The effectiveness of a new model for the treatment of obesity was studied. This model assumed that obesity was not an eating disorder but a “not eating” disorder. Obese individuals do not have a problem eating, they are overly good at it. Obese individuals have a problem not eating. They experience difficulty or anxiety when they do not eat. The model assumed that removal of anxiety associated with “not eating” would allow obese subjects to lose weight. Wolpe and Lazarus' progressive relaxation techniques were used to decondition anxiety assumed associated with “not eating” in subjects. Inferred anxiety was deconditioned under conditions of “not eating” when imagining hunger, emotions, and cravings. Twenty-five subjects were instructed not to follow a diet after deconditioning but to eat less and be hungry to lose weight. A control group of 10 was instructed to follow a balanced 1000-calorie diet to lose weight. The former group lost a statistically significant amount of weight (7.5% of their body weight) over 11.9 months, while the control group subjects gained 6.5% of their weight. The model appears to be effective for the treatment of some individuals who wish to lose weight, based upon this preliminary study. Replication with other and larger groups is essential.

The effects of opening-up meditation on college adjustment and self-actualization were examined with 45 subjects who were divided into groups for opening-up meditation, relaxation, and control using scores on the Anxiety Scale of the College Adjustment Scales. Subjects also completed the Personal Orientation Inventory. 1 hr. of training for the meditation and relaxation groups was given and 20 min./day practice requested. After 2 and 4 wk. anxiety and family problem scores significantly increased for the meditation group as did scores on the Feeling Reactivity Scale. Analysis was compromised by high dropout (leaving 3, 4, and 3 subjects, respectively, in the meditation, relaxation, and control groups).

The present case report examines the potential advantages of incorporating cue-controlled relaxation within a systematic desensitization paradigm to develop a self-control skill for anxiety reduction. The procedural steps involved in incorporating the two techniques are outlined, and case history material is presented which illustrates the successful application of the combined technique.

From a pool of female college students who volunteered and took the modified Jenkins Survey (Form T), 22 subjects were classified as Type A (scores of 11 or above) or as Type B (scores of 5 or below). Subjects were subdivided into six groups (Type A/B) as control, biofeedback/relaxation, or biofeedback/relaxation with competitive set. EMG (frontalis muscle tension) scores were assessed over five blocks of five trials. Pre- and postanxiety self-report measures were also obtained for all subjects. Analysis suggested an interaction of Type (A or B) with set (competitive only). EMG scores indicated that Type A subjects were more tense and remained more tense than Type B subjects under a competitive set. EMG tension scores diminished over trials for all groups. Pre- and postanxiety scores indicated a reduction in self-reported state anxiety for all groups combined, but no differential reductions with respect to group, condition, or set.

Undergraduate volunteers (16 men, 19 women) were randomly assigned to either a meditation or a control condition balanced for expectancy to compare the function of these treatments in the alleviation of test anxiety. Self-report, performance, and physiological indices were assessed as moderated by gender, Scholastic Aptitude Test score, frequency of practice, repression, and expectancy of relief. The treatments were equally effective in reducing test anxiety. The moderators showed no consistent relation to outcome. Results are discussed with reference to different procedures for assessing these constructs.

Literature on drug treatment efficacy consistently shows a disappointing 10 to 20% recovery rate which may suggest a Hawthorne-like effect. Contrary to the pessimism resulting from poor treatment outcomes, however, are the findings reported from animal morphine addiction experimentation. A learning theory framework of drug addiction is presented and findings from animal addiction studies are used to demonstrate the possible usefulness of learning theory in accounting for development of tolerance, abstinence, and relapse and are suggestive of the over-all value of learning theory as an alternative explanation of drug addiction. Such a sociopsychological formulation of drug addiction would have significant implications in terms of more systematic and individualized treatment intervention procedures. Additionally, treatment procedures would be directly related to theory and demonstrated laboratory results and thus, have a higher probability of success and accountability.

Su7nmmy.-Behavioural relaxation training is a simplified technique which may be useful for those individuals who are unable to grasp and benefit from traditional procedures. One such population is Huntington's Disease pntients who, in addition to characteristic choreiform movements, which are exacerbated by increased arousal, also suffer from progressive cognitive deterioration. This smdy used 3. multiple-baseline design to explore potential use of behavioural relaxation training with two patients who showed advanced disease. Improvement on heart rate and a behavioural measure of relaxation was noted. Results are discussed with respect to treatment of choreiform symptoms and rhe use of the procedure with other cognitively handicapped populations. Behavioural relaxation training (Schilling & Poppen, 1983) is a recently developed technique designed to teach directly 10 behaviours that have been associated wich relaxed states. These 10 behaviours include components of an optimal posture for relaxation, validated wich electromyographic (EMG) research (Poppen & Maurer, 1982), as well as reduced breathing rate and vocalizations. The training procedure follows a behavioural skill-training format which includes instructions, modelling, verbal and physical prompts, rehearsal, and feedback. The procedure was developed with learning disabled adolescents who had difficulty benefitting from progressive muscle relaxation (Schilling & Poppen, 1983). Little research has been completed on the efficacy of training. However, Schilling and Poppen (1983) showed the procedure to be at least as effective as frontalis EMG biofeedback or taped progressive muscle relaxation with volunteers as subjects. Behavioural relaxation training has also been successfully applied in the treatment of chronic tension headaches in one case study (Eufemia & Wesolowski, 1983). The development of behavioural relaxation training is potentiaUy useful to both assessment and training in relaxation. In terms of assessment, the 10 training behaviours can be observed as direct measures of relaxation, which has been lacking in both the clinical (Schilling & Poppen, 1983) and research domains (Hillenberg & Collins, 1982; Poppen & Maurer, 1982). With respect to treatment, the simplicity of the behavioural relaxation skills-training format may be well suited to teaching relaxation to previously inaccessible persons with limited cognitive abilities. These individuals may nor be able 'Write G. W. Fecteau for reprints, PO Box 3220, Station "B" Saint John, New Brunswick E2M 4H7, Canada.

The present study attempted to assess subjects' perceptions of treatment effectiveness, plausibility of rationale, and willingness to participate in an experimental project for the treatment of migraine headache. Treatment expectancy was assessed for three experimental treatments (relaxation training, biofeedback training, and social skills training) and for two standard treatments (pharmacotherapy and insight psychotherapy) both prior to assignment to a treatment group and at the end of eight treatment sessions 4 wk. later. Data indicated that: (1) subjects did not change in their expectancy of the experimental treatments over time; (2) the three experimental treatments were perceived by subjects as being at least as plausible, effective, and desirable as the two comparison treatments; and (3) the three aspects of expectancy measured were significantly correlated. Implications of these results were discussed with respect to whether improvement occurring as a result of the experimental treatments could be entirely attributed to expectancy or to other non-specific effects.

Training in progressive muscle relaxation can improve psychophysiological response to stress but is often time-consuming and may prove ineffective for some individuals. Nitrous Oxide (N2O)may offer an effective adjunct or alternative to training. This study evaluated the relative efficacy of these procedures. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of four treatment conditions: relaxation-only, N2O only, relaxation with N2O, and room air-control. The relaxation procedure was modeled on color videotape. Nitrous oxide was administered from a balloon. In addition to various psychological measures, treatment effects were measured for skin temperature, heart rate, systolic blood pressure, and two measures of diastolic blood pressure. Subjective reports of tension were also recorded. There was a significant multivariate difference between treatment groups. The relaxation-only procedure was generally superior to the others on most dependent measures. Subjects receiving N2O appear to have experienced an improvement in mood. Paradoxically, the initially more relaxed subjects seemed to derive the greater benefit from the inhalation of N2O. The use of videotape-modeled relaxation procedures is discussed.

Literature suggested that despite the multiplicity of treatment approaches to drug addiction, there appears to be an over-reliance on group therapies for bringing about change in addicts' behavior. Based upon a learning theory framework developed earlier, a broad-spectrum behavioral approach utilizing aversive counterconditioning and behavioral group therapy for treating drug addiction were described. Of 50 subjects beginning treatment, 30 completed, 13 male and 17 female blacks ( Mage = .22.5 yr.) from a poor socioeconomic background. An aversive counterconditioning procedure was used, which involved the administration of a mild electric shock to the wrist while subjects verbalized and imaginally relived past drug-using experiences. Group therapy attempted to modify the addicts' prodrug attitudes and behaviors as well as to train appropriate coping skills via rational emotive therapy and problem-solving techniques. Initial results suggested that aversive counterconditioning produced an avoidance response to drug-related thoughts and activities. Most important was the extremely low readdiction rate reported for a 2-yr. follow-up. Caution in generalization is required as the project was nonexperimental. Shortcomings limiting conclusions were presented.

The treatment of a case of “cardiac neurosis” is described. Using an applied relaxation treatment program the client was taught relaxation as a coping skill to be used when she felt changes in cardiac activity. The therapy was conducted with minimal contact, the client did most of the training on her own with the help of taped instructions. The results showed a definite decrease in severity of the problem during the treatment period, and by the time of the follow-ups at 6 and 21 mo. after treatment, the client was almost completely relieved from these problems.

Progressive relaxation as a modifier of self-reported test anxiety and cognitive visual perception in undergraduates was tested on 23 volunteers found susceptible to progressive relaxation as indicated by selected items from the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility. Subjects were randomly assigned to treatment and control groups. Pretreatment consisted of the Test Anxiety Inventory and the Hidden Figures Test. Posttreatment measures were the Test Anxiety Inventory and the Witkin's Group Embedded Figures Test. A mixed analysis of covariance for repeated measures with two levels of treatment (between subjects) and two levels of time (within subjects) showed a significant reduction in reported test-anxiety test-retest for all subjects but no significant effect on the Embedded Figures Test scores.

A single group outcome study of treatment for borderline hypertension was performed. 8 male college students, with elevated blood pressure, were identified through campus-wide, blood-pressure screening and were referred by the Health Center for a treatment program of general relaxation and biofeedback-induced relaxation. 4 undergraduate psychology majors conducted training sessions three times per week for each subject. On the basis of increases in finger temperature, it was concluded that relaxation was produced. Reductions in systolic pressure of 10 to 15 mm Hg were obtained in as few as 14 sessions, although greater reductions occurred with more training sessions. A follow-up, 5 mo. later, indicated the need to maintain the relaxation program for a longer duration. Suggestions were made for implementing this treatment program at other colleges and universities.

A 25-yr.-old white, married female was treated for chronic pruritic eczema through the use of frontalis EMG, relaxation, and imagery training. The biofeedback readings, ratings of the pruritus (0 to 5) and ratings of skin smoothness (0 to 5) were made over 10 sessions. Although the EMG measures did not decrease significantly, the rash disappeared completely. A 1-yr. follow-up confirmed disease control.

The present paper documents two case studies in which cue-controlled relaxation was used in the reduction of chronic nailbiting by 2 adults. Results indicated substantial increases in nail-length and decreases in the frequency of habit at post-treatment and follow-up assessments. Successful application of the cue-controlled technique to situations unrelated to nailbiting was also reported. A description of the cue-controlled procedure, its potential as a self-control technique, and recommendations for future research are discussed.

Summary.-15 seminary students who regularly practiced a form of Christian meditation were given the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) . Electroencephalographic (EEG) signals were recorded and analyzed for percent time alpha during performance of a series of mental arithmetic tasks and also during a period of meditation. Higher scores on the Hypochondriasis scale of the MMPI were associated with increase in alpha as the subject proceeded from the mental arithmetic tasks to the meditation period. This result is discussed in terms of previous research, the pre-meditation level of alpha, and the implications for the use of meditation as a therapeutic procedure. Several recent studies have demonstrated beneficial effects from the practice of meditacion of Eastern tradition. Most of this research has focused on Transcendencal Meditation, although some researchers have also investigated 2kn meditative techniques. Effects in the physiological domain include changes in metabolic, autonomic, and EEG systems (cf. Wallace & Benson, 1972). Studies of psychological effects have generally shown that meditators reported they are more at ease than non-meditators. Two abstracts of studies using the MMPI, for example, reported Transcendencal Meditators scored lower on some MMPI scales (Hypochondriasis, Psychasthenia, Schizophrenia, Social Introversion) and on the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Test than control groups of nonmeditators (Orme-Johnson, Author, Franklin, O'Connell, & Zold, 1973; OrmeJohnson, Kiehlbauch, Moore, & Bristol, 1973). Smith (1975) reviewed the literature on the beneficial psychological effects of meditation and suggested that comparisons of meditators and controls on psychological variables may be complicated by a self-selection tendency, since persons choosing to undertake a self-improvement program may differ from those who do not. Pretreatment personality variables have been examined directly by Maupin ( 1965), not as a methodological control, but rather in terms of which individuals are likely to respond best to a meditative training procedure. Maupin found that individuals having greater capacity for regression and tolerance for unrealistic experience (as measured by Rorschach responses) responded more favorably to a Zen meditacion exercise. The present data, collected in 1964 by the first author, were re-examined in light of the current interest in meditation, with a particular focus on the personality variables which influence an individual's response to meditation. The specific response examined was the change in the alpha rhythm of the EEG during meditation. The

17 married women who had received instruction in the Transcendental Meditation program were compared to 17 controls (matched for length of marriage, age, and neighborhood) on Locke's Marital Adjustment Inventory. Interviewees did not know the study was related to meditation or that they were contacted because they were meditators. Subjects in the Transcendental Meditation group showed significantly greater marital satisfaction than controls: for only those reporting regular practice the effect was stronger. The Transcendental Meditation program may be preventive of marital discord.

The Tennessee Self-concept Scale was administered to 15 Australian subjects who had been practicing Transcendental Meditation for a mean of 3 yr. and 15 Australian subjects who had never practiced. A t test showed meditators had significantly more positive self-concepts on 7 of the 29 test scores—Total Positive, Identity, Self-satisfaction, Personal Self, Personality Disorder, Distribution Sub-score 2, and Moral Ethical Self. The possible psychological significance of these findings is discussed as are implications for additional research. The need for cross-validation of data reported in the present paper is essential.

The effectiveness of relaxation as self-control in the treatment of test anxiety was evaluated using each of 11 volunteer college students as his own control. Anxiety level was unchanged over the no-treatment period. Significant reduction in self-reported debilitating test anxiety and improvement in facilitating test anxiety were found after treatment. Significant posttreatment reductions were noted for other anxieties as well. This latter finding suggested that during training in relaxation as self-control Ss may have learned a general, trans-situational anxiety-reduction strategy. Extensions using measures other than self-reports of anxiety, however, are required.

This paper describes the application of relaxation as a self-control program to debilitating test anxiety of two black women. The implications of the treatment model and outcome were discussed in terms of concern about behavior modification by members of a minority group.

The purpose of the study was to explore the utility of stress-reduction techniques within a population of hospitalized multiple sclerosis patients. Four stress-management groups, each composed of 8 to 10 patients, were formed with each participant receiving a pre- and posttest battery focusing on emotional/mood factors (the Profile of Mood States). Group sessions were held once/weekly for 13 wk. Relaxation, cognitive, and behavioral strategies were incorporated into the program. The findings indicate that stress-management techniques were effective in the reduction of psychological distress. Significant decreases were noted in scores on depression and anxiety and significant increase on vigor.