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Clinically significant anxiety symptoms are prevalent among the elderly, yet knowledge about the longitudinal course of anxiety symptoms in later life remains scarce. The goals of this study were to (1) characterize age trajectories of state anxiety symptoms in the second half of life, and (2) estimate genetic and environmental contributions to individual differences in the age trajectory of state anxiety. This study was based on data from 1,482 participants in the Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging who were aged 50 and older at their first occasion (512 complete twin pairs, 458 singletons) and had up to six measurement occasions spanning 11 years. Consistent with lifespan developmental theories of age-related emotional change, anxiety symptom levels declined during the transition from midlife to the mid −60s, followed by a mild increase that gradually plateaued in the 80s. There were substantial individual differences in the age trajectory of anxiety. After accounting for effects of sex, cohort, mode of testing and proximity to death, this longitudinal variation was partitioned into biometric sources. Nonshared environmental variance was highest in the late 60s and declined thereafter, whereas genetic variance increased at an accelerated pace from approximately age 60 onward. There was no evidence for effects of rearing or other shared environment on anxiety symptoms in later life. These findings highlight how the etiology of anxiety symptoms changes from midlife to old age.

This study tested whether history of depression is associated with an increased likelihood of having dementia, and to verify whether a first depressive episode earlier in life is associated with an increased likelihood of dementia, or whether only depressive episodes occurring close in time to dementia diagnosis are related to dementia. Depression information was collected from national hospital discharge registries, medical history, and medical records. Dementia was clinically diagnosed using DSM-IV criteria. Case-control results showed that individuals with recent registry-identified depression were 3.9 times more likely than those with no registry-identified depression history to have dementia, while registry-identified depression earlier in life was not associated with an increased dementia risk. Each 1-year increase in the difference between depression onset and dementia onset or censored age decreased the likelihood of dementia by 8.4%. Co-twin control analyses found that individuals with prior depression were 3.0 times more likely to have dementia than their non-depressed twin partner, with a similar gradient of age of depression onset. Taken together, these findings suggest that after partially controlling for genetic influences, late-life depression for many individuals may be a prodrome rather than a risk factor for dementia.

This study compared 36 older adults with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), 22 older adults with subsyndromal anxiety symptoms, and 32 normal controls on criteria of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.) for GAD. GAD patients reported more frequent and uncontrollable worry, somewhat different worry content, higher prevalence of most associated symptoms, and more distress or impairment than the subsyndromal group or normal controls. Individuals with subsyndromal anxiety reported more excessive, frequent, and uncontrollable worry than asymptomatic individuals, along with more sleep disturbance, fatigue, and distress or impairment. Results indicate that the key features of late-life GAD are distress and impairment, frequency and uncontrollability of worry, muscle tension, and sleep disturbance and that clinicians treating older adults with GAD should monitor and treat residual symptoms.

What are the best quantitative methods for studying cognitive decline? This question was investigated in a sample of 638 individuals aged 50 years and older from the Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging. A battery of cognitive tests tapping multiple domains was administered to each individual from 2 to 7 times over a span of 10 years. Four methods of operationalizing cognitive decline were compared: change scores, a criterion-based method, least squares, and random effects regression (RER). The RER results were most consistent with a significant decline across measures and differences between demented and nondemented individuals. Predicted slopes from the RER model also showed the strongest interrelationships within and across cognitive domains as indicated by factor analysis results and stronger associations with demographic, health, and psychosocial predictors.

Research indicates that apoliprotein E (ApoE) plays a role in the development of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and possibly in the cognitive decline associated with normative aging. More recently, researchers have shown that ApoE is expressed in olfactory brain structures, and a relationship among ApoE, AD, and olfactory function has been proposed. In the current analyses, we investigated the contribution of ApoE and odor identification in decline trajectories associated with normative cognitive aging in various domains, using longitudinal data on cognitive performance available from the Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging. Data on both ApoE status and olfactory functioning were available from 455 individuals ranging in age from 50 to 88 years at the first measurement occasion. Odor identification was measured via a mailed survey. Cognitive performance was assessed in up to 5 waves of in-person testing covering a period of 16 years. Latent growth curve analyses incorporating odor identification and ApoE status indicated a main effect of odor identification on the performance level in three cognitive domains: verbal, memory, and speed. A main effect of ApoE on rates of decline after age 65 was found for verbal, spatial, and speed factors. The consistency of results across cognitive domains provides support for theories that posit central nervous system-wide origins of the olfaction-cognition-ApoE relationship; however, olfactory errors and APOE e4 show unique and differential effects on cognitive trajectory features.

The purpose of this study was to examine whether openness to experience is related to longitudinal change in cognitive performance across advancing age. Participants were 857 individuals from the Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging (SATSA). Factors for 5 cognitive domains were created including: verbal ability, spatial ability, memory, processing speed, and a global score, “g”. Latent growth curve models were used to assess level and longitudinal trajectories of cognitive performance. It was hypothesized that individuals who endorsed higher levels of openness would have higher cognitive test scores and lesser rates of cognitive decline. As predicted, higher openness to experience was associated with significantly higher performance across all cognitive tests for both males and females even after adjusting for education, cardiovascular disease and activities of daily living. Openness, however, was not predictive of differences in the trajectories of cognitive performance over age.

Genetic and environmental etiologies of positive and negative affect, as measured by the Bradburn Affect Balance Scale, were studied to gain understanding of a two-factor theory of well-being. It was hypothesized that negative affect would demonstrate significant genetic and environmental variance and positive affect would be explained primarily by environmental influences. Data were combined from 105 pairs of twins (ages 18-72) and 220 multigenerational families (ages 16-98). Simultaneous model fitting indicated significant heritable effects for negative affect and a significant effect of common environment for twins. Significant effects for positive affect included common environment (for parents and offspring and for twin pairs) and assortative mating. These results, documenting differential genetic and environmental influences on positive and negative affect, provide further support for their being separate components of well-being.

Age differences on the 20-item Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) were examined for 4 age-cohort groups: 20-39 years (n = 548), 40-54 years (n = 218), 55-69 years (n = 352), and 70-98 years (n = 212). On total CES-D, there was a significant age effect and quadratic trend, with means for the middle aged least and those for the oldest most elevated. On 4 CES-D subscales--Depressed Mood, Psychomotor Retardation, Lack of Well-being (i.e., reverse-scored items), and Interpersonal Difficulties--the oldest group scored highest only on lack of well-being. Somatic symptoms of depression were not elevated. Young adults scored highest on depressed mood. Adults who are now old were not generally characterized by elevated self-reports of depressive symptoms; however, on items asking whether the respondent has a hopeful outlook, those aged 70 and older were more likely to endorse a lack of such positive feelings.

The authors examined the relationship between personality and cognitive impairment in 4,039 members of the Swedish Twin Registry. Neuroticism and extraversion scores were collected in 1973 at midlife, and cognitive impairment was assessed in the same group 25 years later. Data were analyzed with case-control and co-twin control designs. Greater neuroticism was associated with higher risk of cognitive impairment in the results from case-control, but not from co-twin, analyses. Compared with both extraversion and introversion, moderate extraversion was associated with lower risk of cognitive impairment in both case-control and co-twin designs, as was the combination of high neuroticism and low extraversion. Findings are discussed in the context of theories related to personality, psychological distress, arousal, and cognitive function.

The aim of this study was to examine the efficacy of life review based on autobiographical retrieval practice for treating depressed older adults. Forty-three adults aged 65-93 with clinically significant depressive symptomatology and no dementia were randomly assigned to treatment or to no treatment. The results indicated significant differences between experimental and control groups after 4 weeks of autobiographical retrieval practice. At posttest, those in the treatment condition showed fewer depressive symptoms, less hopelessness, improved life satisfaction, and retrieval of more specific events. The findings suggest that practice in autobiographical memory for specific events may be among the components of life review that account for its effectiveness and could be a useful tool in psychotherapy with older adults.

What are the best quantitative methods for studying cognitive decline? This question was investigated in a sample of 638 individuals aged 50 years and older from the Swedish Adoption/Twin Study of Aging. A battery of cognitive tests tapping multiple domains was administered to each individual from 2 to 7 times over a span of 10 years. Four methods of operationalizing cognitive decline were compared: change scores, a criterion-based method, least squares, and random effects regression (RER). The RER results were most consistent with a significant decline across measures and differences between demented and nondemented individuals. Predicted slopes from the RER model also showed the strongest interrelationships within and across cognitive domains as indicated by factor analysis results and stronger associations with demographic, health, and psychosocial predictors.