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Magnetic field is ubiquitous in the Universe and it plays essential roles in various astrophysical phenomena, yet its real origin and evolution are poorly known. This article reviews current understanding of magnetic fields in the interstellar medium, the Milky Way Galaxy, external galaxies, active galactic nuclei, clusters of galaxies, and the cosmic web. Particularly, the review concentrates on the achievements that have been provided by centimeter and meter wavelength radio observations. The article also introduces various methods to analyze linear polarization data, including synchrotron radiation, Faraday rotation, depolarization, and Faraday tomography., 40 pages, 16 figures, accepted for publication in PASJ

We present the results of the first simultaneous dual-frequency phase referencing VLBI observation with VLBI Exploration of Radio Astrometry (VERA). The experiment was designed to simultaneously observe two adjacent VLBI sources at two different frequencies to test the feasibility of multifrequency phase referencing for the Korean VLBI Network (KVN). The KVN has introduced a multifrequency receiver system that performs simultaneous observations at four frequencies, such as 22, 43, 86, and 129 GHz, in order to calibrate the atmospheric phase fluctuations at 43, 86, or 129 GHz from the phase at 22 GHz. A pair of two bright continuum sources, a BL Lac object NRAO 512 (22 GHz) and a quasar 3C 345 (43 GHz), with a separation angle of 0. $^{\!\!\!\circ}$ 5 were observed simultaneously. The connected fringe phases of 22 and 43 GHz show very tight correlation that is proportional to the frequency, exhibiting a clearly non-dispersive characteristic of the neutral troposphere to the radio systems. The residual phase, which is the difference of the fringe phase between 43 GHz and a scaled-up phase of 22 GHz by multiplying the frequency ratio of 1.926 ( $\nu_{43}/\nu_{22}$ ), remained constant for more than 2 hr, and showed a weak sinusoidal variation at the first and second half of the observations, respectively. The Allan standard deviation of the residual phase is mostly dominated by white phase noise, implying that the dual-frequency phase referencing can compensate for the atmospheric phase fluctuation effectively. The coherence function of the residual phase indicates that an arbitrarily long-time integration of the fringe visibility is attainable. There is an excellent agreement between the self-calibrated and the phase referenced images of 3C 345. These results are promising for realizing multifrequency phase referencing with the KVN and opening new perspectives in the multifrequency study of VLBI.

We present a distance measurement for the semiregular variable S Crateris (S Crt) based on its annual parallax. With the unique dual beam system of the VLBI Exploration for Radio Astrometry (VERA) telescopes, we measured the absolute proper motion of a water maser spot associated with S Crt, referred to the quasar J1147-0724 located at an angular separation of 1.23$^{\circ}$. In observations spanning nearly two years, we have detected the maser spot at the LSR velocity of 34.7 km s$^{-1}$, for which we measured the annual parallax of 2.33$\pm$0.13 mas corresponding to a distance of 430$^{+25}_{-23}$ pc. This measurement has an accuracy one order of magnitude better than the parallax measurements of HIPPARCOS. The angular distribution and three-dimensional velocity field of maser spots indicate a bipolar outflow with the flow axis along northeast-southwest direction. Using the distance and photospheric temperature, we estimate the stellar radius of S Crt and compare it with those of Mira variables., 9 pages, 4 figures, accepted for publication in PASJ (Vol.60, No.5, October 25, VERA special issue)

We report astrometric observations of H2O masers around the red supergiant VY Canis Majoris (VY CMa) carried out with VLBI Exploration of Radio Astrometry (VERA). Based on astrometric monitoring for 13 months, we successfully measured a trigonometric parallax of 0.88 +/- 0.08 mas, corresponding to a distance of 1.14 +0.11/-0.09 kpc. This is the most accurate distance to VY CMa and the first one based on an annual parallax measurement. The luminosity of VY CMa has been overestimated due to a previously accepted distance. With our result, we re-estimate the luminosity of VY CMa to be (3 +/- 0.5) x 10^5 L_sun using the bolometric flux integrated over optical and IR wavelengths. This improved luminosity value makes location of VY CMa on the Hertzsprung-Russel (HR) diagram much closer to the theoretically allowable zone (i.e. the left side of the Hayashi track) than previous ones, though uncertainty in the effective temperature of the stellar surface still does not permit us to make a final conclusion., Comment: 7 pages, 4 figures, accepted for publication in PASJ, VERA special issue

We present phase-referenced maps of the SiO maser transitions v = 1 J = 1–0 and v = 2 J = 1–0 from the symbiotic stellar system R Aquarii, which hosts an evolved AGB star plus a hot companion. Observations were performed at two epochs: 2004.98 and 2005.98. Accurate absolute coordinates and proper motions of the emission centroid were obtained; the errors expected for these parameters are also given. We compare the VERA data with the previous astrometry by Hipparcos. This represents a possibility to improve the orbital parameters of the system in a different way than that done before. Thanks to our accurate astrometry, we have also estimated the percentage of spot coincidences between both maser transitions, a parameter that has been proposed to be relevant to discriminate between different maser pumping schemes. Although the overall distributions of both lines are always similar, the spots are rarely coincident, in a percentage ranging between 3% and 20% of the cases. The lack of systematic coincidence favors, in principle, radiative pumping. However, we argue that no firm conclusion can be reached due to a lack of models that include an overlap of rovibrational lines, and that accurately address the coincidence of very intense spots of different maser transitions.

We present the technique of instrumental delay calibration for the dual-beam system of VLBI Exploration of Radio Astrometry (VERA), namely, the horn-on-dish method, in which artificial noise sources are mounted on the antenna feedome base and a wide-band radio noise is injected into the dual-beam receivers after reflection by a subreflector. We introduce the basic concept of calibration with the horn-on-dish method, and also present results of the experiments to evaluate its calibration accuracy. Detailed comparisons between model path calculations and measured paths from the noise sources show that the horn-on-dish method can calibrate the dual-beam delay difference in the antenna structure and receiver within an � 0.1 mm level. We estimated that the systematic error in

We observed the SiO (v = 1 and v = 2, J = 1–0) maser emissions toward the Mira variable IK Tauri (IK Tau, NML Tau, IRC +10050) over nine epochs from 2003 November to 2005 April using the VLBI Exploration of Radio Astrometry (VERA) telescope array. We found that the SiO maser distributions around IK Tau are highly variable, depending on the stellar pulsation phase. The velocity structures were complex and also time-variable, and are inconsistent with a simply rotating shell that was suggested by previous observations. Based on fittings of the SiO maser distributions to elliptical ring models, we found that the ring size seems to vary in correlation with the pulsation phase, as previously found for TX Cam. Comparisons of the v = 1 and v = 2 maser distributions reveal that 42–50% of the maser pairs have a positional offset less than 0.5 mas, suggesting that the maser pumping in these spots is likely to be dominated by line overlapping or collisional pumping, rather than pure radiative pumping. In order to model the velocity structure of the spoke-like features observed in IK Tau, we propose a ballistic-orbit model, in which a gas clump ejected from the stellar surface moves radially outward with a gravitational deceleration, and argue that the stellar mass can be deduced from that model.

We report on results of five-epoch VLBI observations of H2O maser emission in the M-type star IRC � 10414, carried out with the VLBI Exploration of Radio Astrometry (VERA). The maser distribution extends over an area of 70 mas � 260 mas and exhibits a bipolar structure. The relative proper motions of 17 maser features were measured during the monitoring observations spanning nine months. The distance to IRC � 10414 was re-estimated on the basis of the statistical treatment of parallax and the model-fitting method, yielding D = 3.1 ˙ 0.4 kpc and D = 2.0 ˙ 0.2 kpc, respectively. The estimated distance, D = 2–3 kpc, is much larger than that previously adopted. The stellar luminosity of IRC � 10414 is also re-estimated to be L� � 9 � 10 4 (D=2 kpc) 2 Lˇ, much brighter by a factor of 10–20 than previously adopted (L� � 10000 Lˇ). The maser motions exhibit not only a spherically expanding flow with a velocity of � 10 (D=2 kpc) km s � 1 , but also a faster bipolar outflow with a major axis in the north–south direction and at a small inclination angle with respect to the celestial sphere. These characteristics of the star and the

We report on the results of multi-epoch VLBI observations with VERA (VLBI Exploration of Radio Astrometry) of the 22 GHz H2O masers associated with the young stellar object SVS 13 in the NGC 1333 region. We have carried out phase-referencing VLBI astrometry and measured an annual parallax of the maser features in SVS 13 of 4.25+/-0.32 mas, corresponding to the distance of 235+/-18 pc from the Sun. Our result is consistent with a photometric distance of 220 pc previously reported. Even though the maser features were detectable only for 6 months, the present results provide the distance to NGC 1333 with much higher accuracy than photometric methods. The absolute positions and proper motions have been derived, revealing that the H2O masers with the LSR (local standard of rest) velocities of 7-8 km s-1 are most likely associated with VLA4A, which is a radio counterpart of SVS 13. The origin of the observed proper motions of the maser features are currently difficult to attribute to either the jet or the rotating circumstellar disk associated with VLA4A, which should be investigated through future high-resolution astrometric observations of VLA4A and other radio sources in NGC 1333.

We report on results of multi-epoch VLBI observations of H2O masers associated with a low-mass young stellar object, IRAS 16293 2422 in Oph East, and a fringe-phase and position reference source, ICRF J162546.8 252738, using the VLBI Exploration of Radio Astrometry (VERA) for high-precision astrometry. We obtained an annual parallax of a maser feature to be = 5.6 0:5 mas, corresponding to a distance of D= 178 +18 37 pc. We also found 10 relative proper motions of maser features with respect to the maser feature mentioned above. The motion of the accompanying young stellar object (YSO) has already been found in thermal continuum emission previously observed with the Very Large Array. The intrinsic motions of masers have been estimated from the relative proper motions after the YSO’s motion is subtracted from, and a systemic secular motion of the position reference feature is added to the proper motions originally measured. The intrinsic maser kinematical structure may trace a bipolar outflow.

We report on absolute proper-motion measurements of an H2O maser source in the NGC 281 West molecular cloud, which is located ~320 pc above the Galactic plane and is associated with an HI loop extending from the Galactic plane. We have conducted multi-epoch phase-referencing observations of the maser source with VERA (VLBI Exploration of Radio Astrometry) over a monitoring period of 6 months since May 2006. We find that the H2O maser features in NGC 281 West are systematically moving toward the southwest and further away from the Galactic plane with a vertical velocity of ~20-30 km/s at its estimated distance of 2.2-3.5 kpc. Our new results provide the most direct evidence that the gas in the NGC 281 region on the HI loop was blown out from the Galactic plane, most likely in a superbubble driven by multiple or sequential supernova explosions in the Galactic plane., Comment: 10 pages, 5 figures, PASJ in press (Vol. 59, No. 4; August 25, 2007 issue)

We report on multi-epoch observations of H2O maser emission in the star-forming region OH 43.8−0.1, carried out with VLBI Exploration of Radio Astrometry. The large-scale maser distributions obtained by single-beam VLBI mapping reveal new maser spots scattered over the area of 0. 7 ×1. 0, in addition to a ‘shell-like’ structure with a scale of 0. 3 ×0. �� 5, which was mapped previously. Proper motions were also obtained for 43 spots based on 5-epoch monitoring with a time span of 281 days. The distributions of the proper motions show a systematic outflow in the north–south direction with an expansion velocity of ∼ 8kms −1 . The overall distributions of the maser spots as well as the proper motions are better represented by a bipolar flow plus a central maser cluster with a complex structure, rather than a shell with uniform expansion, such as those found in Cep A R5 and W75N VLA2. The distance to OH 43.8−0.1 was also estimated based on the statistical parallax, yielding D =2 .8 ±0.5kpc. This distance is consistent with a near kinematic distance, and rules out a far kinematic distance (∼ 9kpc). Also, the radial velocity of the OH 43.8−0.1 combined with the distance provides a constraint on the flatness of the galactic rotation curve, indicating that there is no systematic difference in the rotation speeds at the Sun and at the position of OH 43.8−0.1, which is located at a galacto-centric radius of ∼ 6.3kpc.

We report on a strong outburst of the W49N H2O maser observed with VERA. Single-dish monitoring with VERA 20 m telescopes detected a strong outburst of the maser feature at V_LSR = -30.7 km/s in 2003 October. The outburst had a duration of ~100 days and a peak intensity of 7.9 x 10^4 Jy, being one of the strongest outbursts in W49N observed so far. VLBI observations with the VERA array were also carried out near to the maximum phase of the outburst, and the outburst spot was identified in the VLBI map. While the map was in good agreement with previous studies, showing three major concentrations of maser spots, we found a newly formed arc-like structure in the central maser concentration, which may be a shock front powered by a forming star or a star cluster. The outburst spot was found to be located on the arc-like structure, indicating a possible connection of the present outburst to a shock phenomenon., Comment: 4 pages, 2 figures included, to appear in PASJ letter (Vol.56, #3, 2004 June)

We present analyses to determine the fundamental parameters of the Galaxy based on VLBI astrometry of 52 Galactic maser sources obtained with VERA, VLBA and EVN. We model the Galaxy's structure with a set of parameters including the Galaxy center distance R_0, the angular rotation velocity at the LSR Omega_0, mean peculiar motion of the sources with respect to Galactic rotation (U_src, V_src, W_src), rotation-curve shape index, and the V component of the Solar peculiar motions V_sun. Based on a Markov chain Monte Carlo method, we find that the Galaxy center distance is constrained at a 5% level to be R_0 = 8.05 +/- 0.45 kpc, where the error bar includes both statistical and systematic errors. We also find that the two components of the source peculiar motion U_src and W_src are fairly small compared to the Galactic rotation velocity, being U_src = 1.0 +/- 1.5 km/s and W_src = -1.4 +/- 1.2 km/s. Also, the rotation curve shape is found to be basically flat between Galacto-centric radii of 4 and 13 kpc. On the other hand, we find a linear relation between V_src and V_sun as V_src = V_sun -19 (+/- 2) km/s, suggesting that the value of V_src is fully dependent on the adopted value of V_sun. Regarding the rotation speed in the vicinity of the Sun, we also find a strong correlation between Omega_0 and V_sun. We find that the angular velocity of the Sun, Omega_sun, which is defined as Omega_sun = Omega_0 + V_sun/R_0, can be well constrained with the best estimate of Omega_sun = 31.09 +/- 0.78 km/s/kpc. This corresponds to Theta_0 = 238 +/- 14 km/s if one adopts the above value of R_0 and recent determination of V_sun ~ 12 km/s., 14 pages, 6 figures, PASJ in press