Search

During the Middle Paleolithic in Eurasia, the production of deliberate, abstract engraving on bone or stone materials is a rare phenomenon. It is now widely accepted that both anatomically modern humans and hominins that predate them have produced deliberate engravings associated with symbolic behavior. Within the Levantine Middle Paleolithic context, only five examples of intentional engravings are known thus far. In this paper, we present an aurochs bone fragment that bears six deep, sub-parallel incisions, recovered at the open-air Middle Paleolithic site of Nesher Ramla in Israel. The item, found in an anthropogenic accumulation of artifacts in Unit III of the site, was dated to early Marine Isotope Stage 5 (ca. 120 ka). Unit III is a stratigraphically well-defined layer that is characterized by intense on-site knapping activities with predominance of the centripetal Levallois reduction method and by intense exploitation of aurochs and tortoises. This paper presents a multidisciplinary study of the bone and the incisions, including zooarchaeological, macro- and microscopic analyses, Scanning Electron Microscope analysis and experimental replications. The macroscopic and microscopic attributes of the incisions, and the comparisons with experimental material exclude a taphonomic or utilitarian origin of the incisions. The study indicates that the engravings were most likely produced by a right-handed individual in a single working session. The morphology and characteristics of the incisions, especially the presence of longitudinal polish and striations in one of the incisions, suggest that they were made by a flint artifact, likely retouched. The engraved bone from Unit III at Nesher Ramla is one of the oldest deliberate abstract manifestations produced by Middle Paleolithic and Middle Stone Age hominins and the oldest known so far in the Levant. As such, it has major implications for our understanding of the emergence and early stages of the development of human symbolic behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In our original paper we claimed for a possible symbolic value of the engraved aurochs bone shaft found at the Unit III of the Middle Paleolithic site of Nesher Ramla. In his comment to our original paper, Hodgson (2021) presents a contradictory interpretation, which mostly involved a proto-aesthetic source for early engravings. Here we clarify our point of view concerning the probable symbolic interpretation of the engraved bone and we challenge some of Hodgson's claims and arguments that neglected the archaeological and chrono-cultural contexts of this discovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper communicates the results of a detailed use-wear analysis of flint tools from Unit III of Nesher Ramla, central Israel, an open-air Middle Paleolithic site, dated to Marine Isotope Stage 5. The analyzed sample consists of 966 artifacts that represent major techno-typological categories; scrapers, tools with a lateral tranchet blow, naturally backed knives and other Middle Paleolithic artifact types. Most tools were associated with bone working activities, mainly scraping and cutting, suggesting both consumption and non-consumption-related practices. Results also suggest extensive butchering activities, but other applications are less common, especially the underrepresentation of armature, and plant and hide working is noteworthy. All in all, these patterns suggest a narrow range of activities. Most tools were used by their sharp edge, while the retouched edges bore weak use-related patterns. It is assumed that in some cases, the retouch served to facilitate the grip. The most widely used tools in Nesher Ramla were the naturally backed knives that according to technological studies were one of the goals of knapping at Nesher Ramla. Tools with a lateral tranchet blow, representing a cultural marker of the Nesher Ramla inhabitants, show evidence of multiple use of both retouched and non-retouched edges shaped by the lateral blow. Hafting traces are relatively rare in the analyzed sample. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents the results of the wood charcoal analyses from the Middle Paleolithic open-air site at Nesher Ramla, on the central coastal plain of Israel. The study focuses on the interpretation of the charcoals left by fires used by Middle Paleolithic hominins during early Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5. Moreover, this study sheds light on the arboreal taxa present in the vegetation and environmental conditions in the southern Levant during the Middle Paleolithic. A small quantity of identifiable charcoals was retrieved from the 8-m-thick archaeological sequence of the site (Units II to VI). The largest charcoal assemblage was recovered from part of the sequence dated to MIS 5e. The results show the presence of deciduous Quercus sp. and Prunus. The presence of these taxa, together with other proxies from the multidisciplinary studies at Nesher Ramla, indicate an arboreal setting with relatively humid and mild climatic conditions in MIS 5e. Our results further suggest that wood was used as fuel at Nesher Ramla. Given the scarcity of Middle Paleolithic sites in the Levant that have yielded charcoal, this new data from Nesher Ramla constitutes an important contribution to the study of past environments and the exploitation of plant resources by human groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on new findings from Middle Paleolithic Geula Cave, Israel, located in the northern part of Mt. Carmel. The cave, consists of several small chambers that are remnants of a larger cave system, initially excavated between 1958 and 1964. The occupation at the cave was ascribed to Middle Paleolithic modern humans. In 2016, a salvage excavation was conducted in areas of the cave that were not previously explored. Analyses of the new excavation revealed a consistency in lithic technology throughout the new excavation areas, with an emphasis on Levallois production using mainly bidirectional and centripetal core preparation modes. The faunal study identified intensive hyena and porcupine activities in small chambers, probably at the back part of the cave, while fractured bones in association with flint artifacts were found at what appears as the living area in the cave. Luminescence ages indicated that Geula Cave was occupied as early as 175 ka, but that the major occupation was from 120 to 100 ka. The major occupation at Geula chronologically overlaps with the Skhul and Qafzeh Caves thus reinforcing the notion that Homo sapiens dominated the southern Levant during early MIS 5. This study demonstrates the importance of reinvestigating and reevaluating past excavated prehistoric sites and their contents to enhance our understanding of the regional, cultural and biological history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Site formation processes at ancient tells in the southern Levant have been the focus of several micromorphological studies, contributing to the differentiation of anthropogenic remains from long-term natural sedimentation, occurring post-abandonment. This paper discusses how the study of sedimentary processes and chemical compositions of sediments can be used within the context of an ongoing archaeological project, and how they can contribute to archaeological, historical and geomorphological interpretations. Sedimentary processes were studied implementing POSL, granulometry and PXRF as part of the archaeological research at Tel Burna, Israel. Focusing on the area along the northwestern fortification walls (Area B2), data was collected from multiple strata inside and outside the casemate fortifications dating from the Late Bronze Age to the Late Iron Age. The gradual increase of OSL values obtained inside the casemate wall, indicate accumulation of sediment during a long period of time. Whereas similar values along the entire profile outside the casemate wall indicate sediment accumulation in one-time event. This might be related to defensive preparations, allegedly in response to advances made by Sennacherib's army in 701 BCE. In addition, results from the PXRF studies demonstrated correlation between human activities and the Cu, P, K, Zn, Mn values. Specifically, it was found that as K content increased from younger to older periods, it can be used as a pseudo-dating element. Ca content decreased as sampling descended from the tell's surface, suggesting its origin in long-term aeolian processes. The results show that the use of POSL and PXRF on archaeological contexts are useful for determining sedimentary processes. Furthermore, chemical content enabled pseudo-dating of strata and facilitated the distinction between natural and anthropogenic processes in archaeological sites and landscape. • Elemental stratigraphic gradients correlate with chronology (Ca, P, K, Mn, Zn). • Human activities revealed by Cu, P, K, Zn, and Mn. • Geochemistry could be used as a pseudo-dating method (K content). • Higher content of Ca in younger phases/topsoil is probably due to aeolian deposition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Acheulo–Yabrudian Cultural Complex (AYCC) of the late Lower Paleolithic Levant consists of three major industries, one of which is the blade-dominated Amudian. This paper provides an in-depth comparison of the Amudian blade industry from three major AYCC sites in the Levant – Qesem Cave, Tabun Cave and Yabrud Rockshelter I. The results demonstrate high inter-site similarity in Amudian blade technology and in product (blades) characteristics – i.e., a regional, clearly defined Amudian blade production technology. Nevertheless, differences in particular technological choices along the reduction sequences of blade production between the sites represent minute sub-regional technological variability within the Amudian. The evidence presented in this paper, together with many other innovative behavioral patterns seen in the AYCC, especially as reflected at Qesem Cave, may mark the end of a Lower Paleolithic Acheulian way of life that lasted over a million years in the Levant, and the beginning of a new era. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper focuses on the results of a preliminary study of flint items densities in different areas and different parts of the stratigrapahic column of Qesem Cave. Qesem Cave is a karst chamber cave with a ∼10 m stratigraphic sequence assigned to the Acheulo-Yabrudian Cultural Complex (AYCC) of the late Lower Paleolithic in the Levant dated to 420–200 ka. We first show the range of lithic densities in studied assemblages in the cave emphasizing significant differences in both the total number of lithic items per volume unit and/or for selected artifact categories within these assemblages. The results are used to suggest differential intensity of lithic-related activities in the cave and variability in synchronic (different areas of the cave within a similar stratigraphic level) distribution aspects of lithic categories of selected assemblages. We briefly note on the diachronic (assemblages belonging to different parts of the stratigraphic sequence) aspect of lithic densities in the discussion, yet this aspect is not is not central in this paper. A comparison of densities to frequency compositions of selected techno-typological categories in the same assemblages/areas further emphasizes the importance of using more than one quantitative measure as a descriptor of lithic assemblages and the interpretative potential of the interplay between the two measures. In some analyzed aspects the differences between the two measures in the same assemblage are quite significant, enabling interpretation of activity areas and specific human behaviors. Eventually, further research testing lithic densities against and/or incorporating them with other sets of density (and frequency) data from the same areas (e.g., faunal remains), or relating these densities to natural (such as a rock shelf) or human made features (such as a fireplace), may offer an elaborate and valuable landscape for reconstructing human behavior at the cave. Furthermore, the spatial distribution of specific techno-typological lithic categories within the assemblages studied as seen in densities augmented by available functional data (derived from use-wear analysis) enable another perspective on the subdivision of activity areas in some parts of the sequence. One synchronic example of our preliminary results which we present relates to generally contemporaneous assemblages adjacent to a constructed fireplace in the center of the cave in the upper part of the lower stratigraphic sequence dated to ca. 300 ka. Both blade-dominated Amudian and Quina (and demi Quina) scrapers dominated Yabrudian assemblages are involved, indicating spatially differentiated, functionally related differences around the fireplace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The lithic assemblages recovered from Qesem Cave can be divided into two distinct industries, the Amudian and the Yabrudian, based mostly on different proportions of blades and scrapers. The assemblages can also be divided chronologically and by area within the site, such as the shelf, and the hearth area. The goal of our study is to try to determine whether the assemblages vary in their use of the landscape and its resources. Were the same raw materials used in each case, or do the assemblages differ, either in proportions or in sources exploited? We have therefore undertaken an examination of a sample of approximately 6000 pieces, divided fairly equally between three assemblages: the Amudian and the Yabrudian from the shelf area, and the hearth area (which is Amudian). We begin by categorizing each distinct raw material as to rock type, and, since most of them are varieties of flint, distinguish individual types based on criteria such as colour, cortex characteristics, homogeneity, and any visible fossils. To date we have identified 51 raw material types, some of which are varieties of each other which will be grouped together later. Each lithic piece examined is recorded as to typological category, assigned a raw material type, and weighed. We are thus able to examine the differences in proportions of use of the raw material types in each assemblage, by typological category, and in terms of number of pieces and of weight of material used. This paper reports only on the data concerning numbers of pieces, and shows that some raw materials were selected for specific types of tools or technological requirements. In addition, we have started field work aimed at locating the sources of the flint varieties. We have located 15 potential sources, most within 5 km of the site, but also two located more than 15 km away. Comparison of samples from the geologic sources with samples from the site assemblages has allowed us to tentatively suggest the origins of 46 of the 51 raw material types. This gives us an idea of the extent of the territory exploited by the hominins at Qesem, how different raw materials were used for different purposes, and how use of these resources and territory differs between assemblages. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A sample of Quina and demi-Quina scrapers from the Yabrudian levels at Qesem Cave has been studied through an integrated approach, combining techno-morpho-functional and use-wear analyses. The potential of this approach is shown using the data obtained and discussed in this paper. Quina and demi-Quina scrapers at Qesem Cave were shaped from blanks originating in different production sequences and were most probably imported to the site as ready-made blanks or as shaped scrapers. In some cases, scrapers and blanks for shaping scrapers were collected from the outside of the cave as is indicated by the patina affecting their surfaces, which was subsequently retouched. At the site, Quina and demi-Quina scrapers were used and re-used (multiple uses on the same edge) and evidence of a long cycle of re-sharpening was recorded as well. The activities carried out with these tools were varied, mostly oriented towards cutting and scraping (both animal materials and plants). Nevertheless, use-wear analysis underlined some distinction between Quina and demi-Quina scrapers: the Quina seem more suitable for working hard and medium-hard materials and the demi-Quina for working softer materials, especially through cutting activities. The different edge morphologies obtained by Quina and demi-Quina retouch are well suited for such functions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Middle Pleistocene site of Qesem Cave is mostly characterized by a plethora of cultural innovations and “Ahead of its time” phenomena (e.g., habitual use of fire; systematic blade production; Quina scrapers; lithic and bone recycling; systematic cooperative hunting; meat roasting, and more). Within such a context of major cultural innovations, a small but significant assemblage of shaped stone balls, mostly described as Spheroids/Polyhedrons, is of note. In this paper we present, for the first time, the stone balls of Qesem Cave and discuss their contextual and spatial patterning. This adds what we perceive as some sort of anachronism to the Acheulo–Yabrudian cultural complex (AYCC) array of human behavior in an important stage of human cultural and biological evolution in the southern Levant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The technological innovation involving the controlled use of fire represents a decisive change in human subsistence. Hearths and the spatial distribution patterns associated with them constitute a valuable element in deepening our knowledge on human behaviour and its evolution. Studies focused on hearths and on the use of fire in general are diverse and carried out through different perspectives. Thus, hearths are studied for their meaning in terms of diet, caloric and light capacity and spatial organisation as well as for their role as communication and socialization focal points. The site of Qesem Cave (Israel) shows evidence of the controlled use of fire as early as 400 ka, judging by the burned bones from the lowest units of the stratigraphic sequence. A particular superimposed central hearth that was repeatedly used as a focus for human activities ca. 300 ka is the topic of this study. This succession of hearths at the same location in the cave yields dense faunal and lithic remains as well as evidence for spatial differentiation between areas. Here, we present faunal taphonomical data from this specific archaeological context, which includes not only the hearth area (approximately 4 m 2 ) but also the surrounding areas (approximately 11 m 2 ). The most common prey species is the Mesopotamian fallow deer ( Dama cf. mesopotamica ), which displays a wide age range and a biased anatomical profile including mainly marrow-rich bones such as long-limb bones. These characteristics, especially those regarding the relative abundance of infantile and young fallow deer, lead us to propose that social hunting techniques were practised following a seasonal regime. This paper provides data on human subsistence behaviour during the formation of the hearth and the archaeological unit around it, comparing the two from a taphonomical perspective. Elements such as size (length) of bone fragments and intensity of burning are spatially plotted to show differential space division. All these data are considered in the reconstruction of subsistence strategies and hominin behaviour in the Acheulo-Yabrudian Cultural Complex in the Levant. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents new results of a lithic study of two distinct lithic assemblages from the Qesem Cave “Shelf” area in the northwestern part of the cave – one Yabrudian and one Amudian, both older than 300 ka. The two assemblages exhibit clear stratigraphic relations, the Yabrudian being deposited on top of the Amudian. A detailed techno-typological study of the two assemblages (n = ∼30,000 artifacts) is presented as well as a comparative analysis between them. The results indicate that the Yabrudian and Amudian of the “Shelf” area are part of the same technological system sharing similar techno-typological features. Differences are mainly at the relative frequency level and in the density of the various elements of the assemblages. These results suggest that the differences between the assemblages might be related to differences in human activities in the different strata of the “Shelf” area using different tool-kits and not to differences in technology or any other cultural conception. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Microvertebrates are generally well suited for drawing inferences on past environmental conditions because they are closely bound to the areas in which they lived. In this paper, we discuss palaeoecological implications of two microvertebrate concentrations in the Middle Pleistocene site Qesem Cave in Israel. The ecological preferences of the nearest living relatives of the microvertebrate taxa recorded in Concentration 1 (squares L–N/13–15) and 2 (squares G-H/16–17) at Qesem Cave allow us to infer a mosaic of open palaeoenvironment with sparse vegetation, shrubland, Mediterranean Forest, rocky areas and riverbanks. Additionally, we infer palaeoclimate from the bioclimatic distribution of extant species using the Coexistence Approach. To our knowledge, this is the first time the approach has been applied to microfaunal assemblages. These data suggest cooler and slightly drier winters and somewhat lower seasonality than at present around Qesem Cave; the differences are more pronounced for the time covered by Concentration 2 than Concentration 1. Among microvertebrates, micromammals are most suitable for biostratigraphic purposes. With the exception of Rattus cf. haasi and the Myomimus judaicus / setzeri group, the small mammal fauna of Qesem Cave comprises only taxa that live today in the Levant. R . haasi and M . judaicus have been found in Israel in the Early and Middle Pleistocene, and their latest known record was from the Acheulian site of Oumm Qatafa. Their presence in Qesem Cave extends the previously known stratigraphic range of these species. The absence of R . haasi in Mousterian sites is thus consistent with the pre-Mousterian age of Qesem Cave. Morphometric data on molars of Guenther's Vole show that the lineage segment preserved in Concentration 2 is more primitive than in Concentration 1, indicating that the former concentration is older. The evolutionary level of the sample from Qesem Concentration 1 is similar to Tabun D (boundary of Acheulo-Yabrudian Cultural Complex and Mousterian), and that from Qesem Concentration 2 similar to Tabun Eb (Acheulo-Yabrudian). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents new results regarding lithic recycling in three flint assemblages from Qesem Cave, a late Lower Paleolithic site in Israel assigned to the Acheulo-Yabrudian Cultural Complex (AYCC). The study focuses on the similarities and differences in lithic recycling at the cave between the Amudian and Yabrudian industries as well as within the Amudian industry. Variability in recycling is evident at both the inter-industry level (between the Amudian and Yabrudian) and the intra-industry level (within the Amudian). In light of the results, we discuss the role of lithic recycling in the two AYCC industries at Qesem Cave, shedding new light on AYCC lithic variability in general and human behavior at Qesem Cave in particular. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Qesem Cave is a Middle Pleistocene site in Israel assigned to the Acheulo-Yabrudian Cultural Complex (AYCC). The cave reveals a suite of innovative behaviors including intensive flint recycling activities. In this paper, we present a new classification system, developed for the study of lithic recycling at Qesem Cave. Through the careful technological analysis of hundreds of recycled items we have identified several recycling modes at Qesem Cave, including a specific production trajectory of blades and knives recycled from “old” flakes. We argue that the study of lithic recycling provides a significant glance at human decision-making processes and the technological repertoire of the late Lower Paleolithic, which are particularly pronounced when practiced within a lithic economy that enjoyed abundance rather than scarcity of stone. Our observations provide a more coherent view of AYCC lithic recycling which might be applied to the study of lithic recycling in other Paleolithic contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Remarkably, the largest archaeological game traps ever recorded in the Near East are found in arid landscapes, both on plains and in hilly terrains. This paper describes the construction methods used on steep slopes in the Negev Highland. Apparently, in some cases a massive rampart (rather than a free-standing wall) was built around the trap''s head. The details reflect careful planning and heavy-duty work, including leveling and then using more than 100 t of stone for the rampart construction. New 14C data date the Sayarim site to the Early Bronze Age (minimum age), and the Pitam site to pre-Late Bronze Age. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Lower Paleolithic faunal and lithic assemblages serve as a major source of information on the behavior and capabilities of Early- and Middle Pleistocene hominins. The multi-layered Late Acheulian site of Revadim Quarry provides a rare opportunity to study hominin–elephant interactions during the Late Lower Paleolithic period in the Levant. A large proportion of this open-air site was excavated (ca. 250 m2) and yielded a wealth of lithic and faunal remains. In this paper the proboscideans from Revadim are presented for the first time within the broader geomorphological, stratigraphic and archaeological context in order to allow a better understanding of elephants within the Acheulian in the southern Levant. The unprecedented quantity of elephant remains at the site is accompanied by large and rich lithic assemblages. Of special interest are several elephant bones with cut marks, and the earliest appearance in the southern Levant of bones that seem to have been shaped to resemble tools. The site bears testimony to complex exploitation of proboscideans. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper examines the spatial distribution of faunal remains on the floor of Kebara Cave (Israel) during unit X (60,000 ± 3500 years), one of the densest occupation layers in the site’s late Middle Paleolithic sequence. During unit X, the central floor area of the cave contained numerous hearths and associated ash lenses, surrounded by an area that was nearly devoid of macroscopic faunal remains, except for three densely packed oval to circular concentrations of bones (structures 1, 2, and 3), each of which was surrounded by a dark organic-rich aureole or ring, and whose shape, size, and spatial location remain virtually unchanged during the accumulation of over 60 cm of unit X deposits. Mineralogical analyses of the sediments from the décapage surface using "on-site Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometry" showed that the absence of visible bones outside of the three dense concentrations is not an artifact of differential preservation. Bones were also densely concentrated in a midden along the north wall of the cave adjacent to the occupation area. The composition of the faunal assemblage from structure 1, the best preserved of the three structures, is compared with the remains found in the midden, and the results of these comparisons used as a basis for hypothesizing how these curious bone concentrations may have formed. While no explanation can be offered with any degree of certainty, one viable possibility is that these structures are the remains of trash-filled pits. Further studies are suggested that may help clarify the nature of these unusual bone concentrations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper provides new relative sea level data inferred from coastal archaeological sites located along the Turkish coasts of the Gulf of Fethye (8 sites), and Israel, between Akziv and Caesarea (5 sites). The structures selected are those that, for effective functioning, can be accurately related to sea level at the time of their construction. Thus their positions with respect to present sea level provide a measure of the relative sea level change since their time of construction. Useful information was obtained from the investigated sites spanning an age range of ˜2.3–˜1.6 ka BP. The inferred changes in relative sea level for the two areas are distinctly different, from a rise of 2.41 to 4.50 m in Turkey and from 0 to 0.18 m in Israel. Sea level change is the combination of several processes, including vertical tectonics, glacio–hydro-isostatic signals associated with the last glacial cycle, and changes in ocean volume. For the Israel section, the present elevations of the MIS-5.5 Tyrrhenian terraces occur at a few meters above present sea level and vertical tectonic displacements are small. Data from GPS and tide gauge measurements also indicate that any recent vertical movements are small. The MIS-5.5 shorelines are absent from the investigated section of the Turkish coast, consistent with crustal subsidence associated with the Hellenic Arc. The isostatic signals for the Israel section of the coast are also small (ranging from −0.11 mm/yr to 0.14 mm/yr, depending on site and earth model) and the observed (eustatic) average sea level change, corrected for this contribution, is a rise of 13.5 ± 2.6 cm during the past ˜2 ka. This is attributed to the time-integrated contribution to sea level from a combination of thermal expansion and other increases in ocean volume. The observed sea levels from the Turkish sites, in contrast, indicate a much greater rise of up to 2.2 mm/yr since 2.3 ka BP occurring in a wide area between Knidos and Kekova. The isostatic signal here is also one of a rising sea level (of up to ˜1 mm/yr and site and earth-model dependent) and the corrected tectonic rate of land subsidence is ˜1.48 mm/yr. This is the primary cause of dramatic relative sea level rise for this part of the coast. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]