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Planning a portfolio that includes different power generation technologies is an important method to ensure expected value and to reduce risks for the project investment of electric-power enterprises. This paper evaluates the optimal investment portfolio strategies implemented by electric power enterprises by using real option and portfolio optimization methods. The real options method is used to generate investment values and their distribution. These serve as the input variables of the portfolio optimization model. The portfolio optimization model is built based on the conditional value at risk. The optimal investment is analyzed by considering four policy scenarios: different expected investment values, the phase-out of subsidies, tightened carbon reduction standards, and different initial renewable energy certificate prices. A case study is conducted to analyze the investment decision of an electric power enterprise in China. The results show the optimal investment portfolio strategy, the investment value, and the conditional value at risk. The optimal decision for ensuring a relatively high expected value while reducing risks is to increase the share of solar PV power generation and wind power generation in current conditions. Tightened carbon reduction standards and higher renewable energy certificates prices are conductive to increase the investment value, reduce the risk of loss and increase the share of renewable energy power generation. In contrast, the phase-out of the subsidies had the opposite effect. The methodology and results can provide a reference for investors to guide the formulation of the optimal investment decision and for the government to optimize the policy effect. • Evaluate the investment portfolio strategies of power enterprises under multiple-policy scenarios of renewable energy. • Use the real option and portfolio optimization method. • Show the optimal investment portfolio strategy, the investment value, and the conditional value at risk. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Biogas technology has brought benefits to health, the environment, the economy and energy conservation. Vast biomass resources, including organic waste, have the potential for use as feedstock for biogas production in China. This paper presents the development status of biogas application in China. The goal was to provide quantitative information about biogas use, from villages to large cities, to assess the major characteristics of biogas application. Analysis of the opportunities and constraints of the different biogas applications provided the basis for policies for the development of biogas plants and for the adjustment of the scale of biogas development to match local requirements. Based on the characteristics of different biogas plants and geographic regions, a fuzzy analytic hierarchy process model was used to provide a suitability evaluation for development of the regional biogas industry. Results from this model could provide decision support for development strategies for regional distribution plans and the scale of biogas system construction. The findings can also aid further research on balancing energy supply and demand, energy policy formation, and the regional eco-environment development in China. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper examines the development of policy instruments that support the low-carbon governance in China. The instruments are analysed in five aspects in relation to the key policies in low-carbon governance in China, including: energy conservation, developing new energy, reforestry, developing circular economy, and industry restructuring. Each aspect is discussed in three instrument groups which are (1) law and regulations, (2) industry standard and (3) finance and taxation. This research suggests that law enforcement for the new established laws should be further strengthened and stricter supervision systems should be in place to safeguard effective implementation of low carbon policies, measures and standards, especially for those energy condensed sectors. More rigorous industry standards regarding energy efficiency should be considered to help eliminate outdated equipments in industries and promote the introduction of more climate-friendly technologies. The industrial standards should be given strong legal support in accountability, in order to enforce their complete application once in operation. New policies and instruments need to be introduced in order to reduce carbon print by landfill. The backward law and industrial standards in China should be upgraded more regularly, therefore to support the low carbon development strategy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: China is one of the largest energy consumers in the world. Excessive consumption of coal and other primary energy causes serious environmental pollution and energy crisis. China must wean from the over-reliance on coal and needs to make great efforts to develop clean and efficient renewable energy. In recent years, offshore wind energy has been developing rapidly with the advantages of not taking up land resources and high utilization rate. By the end of 2012, the total installed capacity of offshore wind power was 389.6MW in China. The planning capacity will be 5GW by 2015 and 30GW by 2020 [1,2]. Compared to onshore wind power, the development of offshore wind power is facing some new problems and challenges, for example power transmission, offshore harsh natural environments, multi-sectoral coordination and management, and so on. This paper firstly analyzes the irrationality of China׳s energy consumption structure and the necessity for developing offshore wind power. Secondly, an overview of offshore wind farm access, AC (Alternating Current) and DC (Direct Current) transmission technologies and offshore wind turbine control strategies are given. The development status and future plans of offshore wind power are also introduced. Finally, we analyze the existing problems and obstacles during the construction process of offshore wind farms from three aspects, including technical, economic, and national policies. And some corresponding recommendations to accelerate the development of offshore wind farm are also proposed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Wind power is one of the world׳s major renewable energy sources, and its utilization provides an important contribution in helping solve the energy problems of many countries. After nearly 40 years of development, China׳s wind power industry now not only manufactures its own massive six MW turbines but also has the largest capacity in the world with a national output of 50millionMWh in 2010 and set to rise by eight times of that amount by 2020. This paper investigates this development route by analyzing relevant academic literature, statistics, laws and regulations, policies and research and industry reports. The main drivers of the development in the industry are identified as technologies, turbines, wind farm construction, pricing mechanism and government support systems, each of which is also divided into different stages with distinctive features. A systematic review of these aspects provides academics and practitioners with a better understanding of the history of the wind power industry in China and reasons for its rapid development with a view to enhancing progress in wind power development both in China and the world generally. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: China is now in the process of rapid urbanization. City׳s operating efficiency was directly determined by the scale and efficiency of energy consumption and flow. The pattern, scale and efficiency of urban carbon flow are not only important indicators that reflect urban efficiency and sustainable development, but also important references in the formulating low-carbon and sustainable energy polices for cities. Through establishing a theoretical framework and calculation method, this paper studied the carbon flows of Nanjing urban system in three different levels. It shows that urban production and transportation system, urban living system, rural production system and rural living systems are the major part of urban system in the carbon flow. The carbon flows between Nanjing and the external system, was much higher than the carbon flows among different internal subsystems. If the embodied carbon is taken into account, carbon flow from the urban to rural system of Nanjing was clearly greater than the flow in the opposite direction. With economic development and the implement of energy-saving and emission reduction policy, the carbon productivity and carbon flow efficiency in Nanjing has improved significantly since 2000. Fossil energy consumption, urbanization, agricultural activities, rural life demands and trade are key factors with major impact on urban carbon flows in Nanjing. Therefore, adjusting industrial structure, urban expansion control, and developing renewable energy are main measures to realize sustainable development of Najing city. Furthermore, the dual urban–rural structure in Nanjing brought large exchanges of products and embodied carbon between urban and rural areas, indicates that urban carbon flow and its efficiency was highly influenced by urban–rural structure, which will further aggravate carbon flow burden of urban systems. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Micro-grids are effective concepts and systems to interface renewable and sustainable energy resources into utility, which has been paid significant attention. In this paper, the policies and demonstrations of micro-grids for researches and developments, as well as practical applications in China have been comprehensively reviewed. Many recent policies on renewable energy and micro-grids are summarized, which have been guiding and contributing the development of micro-grids in China. Additionally, the available micro-grids demonstrations in China are also introduced in detail. Finally, the emergency necessaries and trends of micro-grid applications in China have been concluded. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Renewable energy and energy efficiency (REEE) policies have far-reaching implications for energy security, climate change, economic competitiveness, pollution, and human livelihood. For these reasons, REEE has become a national priority for the Chinese government, particularly since 2005. This paper aims to critically review China's REEE policies in six sectors: electricity, industry, transportation, buildings, and local government. In addition to examining the progress China has made in the development and implementation of REEE policies, this review also identifies limitations and room for improvement. Finally, five policy recommendations are presented. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Hybrid energy systems (HES) facilitate the efficient utilization of renewable resources and sustainable energy, and they are expected to be more prevalent in the future. With ground source heat pump (GSHP) as the main body and core technology, the hybrid ground source heat pump (HGSHP) system is used frequently in recent years and its integration and synthesis skills face higher requirements. The worldwide hybrid system has usually been composed of types of energy source devices, such as solar collector, boiler (coal, gas, oil), electric heater, waste energy device, cooling tower, cooler, and thermal storage system with natural cold and hot. Actually, they lead to the complicated unsteady processes and various hybrid energy systems. In China, the applications of these systems are growing year by year, but the new technology breakthrough is being in difficulty and even in an awkward situation. This paper review the progress of GSHP combined with HES all over the world, and surveyed the development of HGSHP in China. Meanwhile, the basic proposals for development in the future are presented to make up the gap in the field of HES and HGSHP. A coming work aims to research the basic problems during the demonstration application, such as investigation of system design parameters, component configuration and control strategies of a HGSHP system. These problems will strengthen theoretical and practical understanding of HES and facilitate more extensive application of HGSHP in China. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Energy is the basis of social development. Practices show that national and regional economic development speed and degree are more obviously depending on the construction of modern energy supply support system. As one of the biggest developing countries of the world, the remarkable achievement of China during the last three decades is inseparable with the powerful support for energy. Nevertheless, the limitations of resource distribution and exploitation make the sustainable development of China's energy supply face numerous challenges. This paper reviews the evolution process of China's energy supply and demand pattern, analyzes from two dimensions: time and space, further puts forward the upcoming problems that may occur during the long-term, stable and sustainable development. Finally, several suggestions are proposed from the aspects of matching policy support, structure adjustment and layout optimization, which provide theoretical reference and practical guidance for the comprehensive management of the sustainable energy supply and demand development of China. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The rapid growth of China's economy has accelerated its energy demand, which is becoming more urgent. It is essential to exploit renewable energy because of the limited conventional energy, high energy consumption and serious pollution. China will strengthen the development and utilization of wind, solar, biomass and other renewable energies in the future, which will reduce the level of carbon emissions. However, China's rapid growth in renewable energy, particularly wind, has been accompanied with some growing pains, and there is room for improving the legal framework to address these challenges. A reasonable renewable energy tariff policy has a pivotal role for changing China's current situation. This paper introduced the current development situation of renewable energy, analyzed the evolution and implementation effect of the renewable energy tariff policy and discussed the problems of the renewable energy tariff policy in China. On this basis, this article proposed feasibility tariff policy recommendations to solve the problems, which important theory significance and the practical application value. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: After a decade of astonishing growth of wind power capacity worldwide, sustainable utilization of wind energy resources has become an issue of utmost importance. For a comprehensive assessment of the environmental sustainability of a wind power, basic emergy flow diagram and emergy indices are presented in this paper to aggregate various renewable/nonrenewable local resources and purchased economic inputs associated with a wind power system, with concrete illustration by a case study of a modern wind farm in Guangxi, China. It is revealed that the solar transformity of wind electricity is the lowest among typical electricity generation technologies. Emergy-based indices are then calculated to provide integrated information of the investigated wind farm from an ecological point of view. Comparison between the results with existing data for other renewable energy systems reflects the substantial advantages of wind power technology over solar thermal power and photovoltaic technologies in terms of sustainability and ecological cost. Nevertheless, biomass-derived fuels, especially biogas by anaerobic digestion, show a better ecological performance and environmental sustainability than wind and solar technologies. In addition, potential for improvements of Chinese wind farm are identified by optimization effort in human labor, land use and waste treatment. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper reviews the electricity market reforms improving resource allocation and renewable energy integration in Yunnan. Given the predominance of hydropower and the importance of energy exports in Yunnan, the province presents a challenging case study of electricity market reforms. The experience of and lessons from Yunnan provide a reference for other provinces in China engaged in the growing adoption of renewable energy. The main contributions of this paper lie in the extension of the existing understanding of electricity reforms in Yunnan and China. Based on extensive data previously unreported in the literature, this paper shows how the Yunnan electricity market functions in practice and indicates where the practice is deficient in terms of the theory of how electricity markets should function. Finally, this paper suggests how market reforms should be adopted toward a scientifically designed electricity market. • Over 30 billion RMB of benefits have been produced by Yunnan's electricity market reforms. • Provincial trading increased fourfold in five years based on a mid/long-term market supplemented by day-ahead trading. • Interprovincial trading has been promoted via market mechanisms with a model of " plan + market ". • Challenges and policy implications of further reforms are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Garden waste biomass is a potentially underutilized renewable biofuel feedstock, which is increasing dramatically with rapid urbanization worldwide. China has experienced fast-paced urbanization over the past three decades: the settlement area has increased at a rate of 6.1% annually, with greenspace increasing by 12.7% annually from 1996 to 2008. This paper provides a synthesis of literature and experimental data to trace the potential of garden waste biomass for green renewable energy production in China. Our results show that the total potential biofuel produced by garden waste biomass was estimated at 260 petajoules (PJ), accounting for 20.7% of China's urban residential electricity consumption, or 12.6% of China's transport gasoline demand in 2008. Thus the use of garden waste biomass for energy production will contribute to the construction of low-carbon cities. However, there are still many difficulties—the main challenges are how to quantify the available garden waste biomass accurately, and technical and financial issues with the exploitation of garden waste biomass for energy production. Finally, we provide several practical suggestions for the future development of garden waste biomass for energy production. The use of garden waste for energy production in urban areas could be a win–win approach for mitigating both the burden of disposed costs and the energy crisis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Climate change has become the most globally concerned environmental issue. As the world's largest carbon dioxide emitter and primary energy consumer, China has strong incentives to change its coal-dominated electricity structure. Various renewable powers such as wind and solar are suitable and necessary options for carbon emission reduction. The 12th Five-Year (2011–2015) and the mid-term until 2020 are critical periods for the development of Chinese renewable powers. In this paper individual renewable electricity sources were introduced based on their characteristics. Based on the introduction, the targets as well as their effects in the medium and long-term were presented and explained; challenges China has to face in the periods were discussed in detail, and emphasis was put on hydro, solar and wind power, which is highlighted in the plans. Also solutions against these challenges were recommended. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: It is highly significant for China to improve its development of wind power. In order to promote the sustainable development, a more comprehensive evaluation of factors affecting the effectiveness of investment in the industry wind power is required to be conducted to formulate a relatively stable policy supporting mechanism for the development of wind power. Based on the green accounting framework, this paper evaluates a typical wind power project from economic, environment and energy alternative respects comprehensively. We simulate the main factors influencing cost and benefit of the wind power investment with the Monte Carlo method. Finally, we discuss how to promote wind power with respect to the concern of government, investors and environmentalists. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: With regard to energy conservation and the reduction of emissions, China is dedicated to facilitating the development of renewable energy in order to fulfil its international responsibility. In recent years, the installed wind power capacity in China has increased rapidly due to its large scale and centralization. The high penetration of wind power has brought about a series of problems such as the wind energy utilization and curtailment, auxiliary services and the pricing mechanism. The resolution of these problems needs policies which will provide more support than the current technologies and standards for wind power. This paper takes the evaluation of capability of accepting large-scale wind power in China as its object of study. According to the analysis of such risk factors as the influence of the grid on wind power integration, wind power itself, the market and policy, an evaluation model of the ability of accepting large-scale wind power is established based on risk theory. Then, the estimation of the ability to accept wind power in Gansu Province is used to testify to the effectiveness of this model. Finally, a series of reasonable policies for wind power are proposed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: China is facing a number of challenges such as electricity supply shortages, excessive consumption of fossil fuels and environmental pollution. As a renewable energy, wind power plays a vital role in mitigating these issues. With its unique geographical location and rich resources, China has produced a wind power industry that has achieved rapid growth. However, the complex Chinese market environment presents significant challenges to the industry. This research has adopted a strength, weakness, opportunity and threat analysis approach to examine both the internal and external factors that affect the competitiveness of the wind power industry in China. An extensive and critical review of a wide range of literature (including academic papers, industry reports, statistical data, relevant regulations and policy documents) was conducted. As a result, 19 factors were identified. These factors form part of an integrated framework that provides a useful tool for both policy makers and industry to gain a better understanding of what affects the sustainable development of the wind power industry in China. The results also provide a useful reference for foreign firms that intend to explore the Chinese wind power market. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In order to realize the sustainable development of country and society, many countries have established their renewable energy law and development strategy no matter developed countries or developing countries. It is well known that China is the largest developing country in the world, and the per capita GDP ranks more than 100, however, the total GDP ranks the second due to the huge population amount, and just behind USA. Certainly, the total energy consumption amount is huge, and the big energy demand has brought a serious of environmental problems such as acid rain, water and soil pollution, and resource exhaustion, etc. Fortunately, China central government has regarded the serious question to realize the sustainable development in future. The renewable energy law has been established in 2005. Firstly, China''s energy situation and existing environmental questions in past years is introduced in this paper. Secondly, the distribution and the application practice of different renewable energy were introduced. Then, China''s renewable energy policy is detailed introduced in the following section. The next section discusses the existing questions. Based on these discussions, the development barriers and recommendations are introduced, respectively. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In response to climate change, China''s power industry is undertaking the task of reducing carbon emissions. Renewable energy generation has become an important option. For the government and state grid companies, it is important to know the maximum possible capacities of renewable energy generation from its different sources in order to plan the construction of the power grid in the future. In this paper, several important factors affecting the development of renewable energy generation are identified through a review of the existing literature (such as cost, technical maturity and so on) and analyzed. Combined with the learning curve model, the technology diffusion model and expectations about future economic development in China, a new model, the Renewable Energy Optimization Model (REOM), is developed to analyze the development of three renewable energy sources (wind power, solar power and biomass power) from 2009 to 2020. Results show that (1) the maximum installed capacities of wind power, solar power and biomass power will reach 233321, 26680 and 35506MW in 2020; (2) from 2009 to 2020, biomass power will develop rapidly at the early stage while wind power is developed massively at the final stage and solar power has relatively stable growth; (3) due to the added capacity in the early periods, the unit investment cost of solar power shows a large decline, which is good for its following scale development; (4) the investment ratio constraint has a large effect on the development of wind power while the constraint of on-grid proportion of renewable energy generation has a significant effect on the development of wind power and solar power. The results have important policy implications for long-term energy planning in developing countries, such as China and India. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: With the integration of increased variable renewable energy generation and advent of liberalized electricity market, much attention has been devoted on the development of pumped hydro energy storage (PHES) as it has many prominent advantages of ensuring the safe and steady operation of power grid. In China, PHES has met a booming periods for the last ten years. Currently, there are 24 PHES stations with an installed capacity of 16.95GW while government''s target of 2020 is 50.02GW. In this paper we provide an overall review of China''s PHES development with a detailed presentation of the installed capacity and distribution of existing and proposed PHES stations, examine 4 typical stations in order to give a good description for the practical functions of PHES in power grid, analyze the management mode and price mechanism of PHES operation and point out the barriers in PHES development in China. State Grid Corporation of China (SGCC), which are making great efforts on China''s PHES development, is discussed as a role model. On that basis we suggest PHES in the fast developing period should be temporarily operated and scheduled by grid companies in terms of exertion of its positive effects, while government should also take responsibility to subsidize on the stations'' operation to relieve the price pressure of the ever-growing integration of renewable energy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Even though China''s wind power industry has experienced a rapid growth since the beginning of this century, the utilization of wind power is still worrisome. In 2010, about 30% of China''s total installed capacity could not get access to the grid. And about 10% of China''s total wind power generation was curtailed. The problem of wind power curtailment is more prominent in Northeast-China region. The main particularity of Northeast China Grid is as follows: during the long heating period in winter, combined heat and power thermal plants need to modify the turbine generator''s output to meet the heating demand and thus the thermal power peak regulation capacity is reduced, as a result the barriers of wind power consumption are increased. This paper provides a new perspective of the constraints on the effective utilization of wind power in the Northeast China Grid. We argue that there are two categories of constrained factors: structural factor and operational factor. The former includes grid structure, wind source structure, power source structure, and market structure. The latter includes power price mechanism, dispatch mode arrangement, wind power integration codes, and wind power forecast. At last, we make policy recommendations: promote the coordination between wind farm investment and grid construction, strengthen interprovincial power trade mechanism, implement flexible pricing mechanisms as well as improve current dispatch mode, etc. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: There are still more than 30% of the Tibetan administrative villages without power, and about 40% farmers there are suffering from a serious shortage of firewood. Tibet is abundant in the deposits of hydropower, geothermal, and solar energy. The practical ways to solve the universal service of Tibetan rural energy are researched in the paper. We find that there are two main objectives of the universal access to energy in Tibetan rural areas. One is to meet the demand of electricity consumption and daily energy consumption of the farmers and herdsmen without power, initially solve energy poverty, realize the equitable access to energy, and ensure the early access to modern civilization. The other is to guarantee the provision of energy required in Tibet''s rural economic development and urbanization. Their accomplishment depends on the responsibilities’ definition and implementation in the universal service of energy by the central and local governments, and on the establishment of a universal service mechanism of energy. The conflict between the need of energy development in the agricultural and pastoral areas of Tibet and its insufficient financial resources cannot be solved without the support and assistance from the central government and other developed provinces in China. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Wind energy, as a reliable, natural and renewable electrical power supply, produces no emissions and so it is an excellent alternative to conventional, more heavily polluting fuels in the long term based on the worldwide concern about the environment and energy supply. Wind energy resources in China are affluent, but its distribution are uneven, centralized, and far from both the utility and the high electricity demand markets. This made China''s onshore wind power development have such characteristics as large scale, high centralization and far transmission, which is different with that in Europe, where the characteristics are even distribution, decentralized. In past two decades, considering the economic, technical and environmental benefits of wind power, China has given priority to its development. Besides the dramatic growth of large scale grid-connected wind power, household-scale wind power has been used most successfully in remote rural regions in China. Therefore, the development of wind power will be of great importance to alleviate the energy crisis and environmental pollution resulting from the rapid economic growth of China in the future. In this paper, the current development of wind energy utilization in China is investigated, and some critical barriers are discussed. Finally, the perspective of wind energy utilization is presented, where focuses are placed on seven wind power bases. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The interplays among economy and energy and environment have been widely concerned. This paper put forward several indicators to quantify the relationships among economic growth and energy consumption and CO2 emission. As an example, these indicators were applied to evaluate the comprehensive performances of China during 1990–2007. The results show that Chinese people has been living a better life with Chinese rapid economic growth but not synchronously in urban and rural areas. Non-carbon energy resources share has increased; however, fossil energy resources have still acted as the main driver for Chinese economic growth during this period. Technical progress has improved the fossil energy efficiency of Chinese economic activity, which leads to CO2 emission per unit GDP and CO2 emission per capita unit GDP dropping simultaneously; however, the two indicators’ annual decline rates become smaller and smaller, which reflects that technical progress’ role is dropping and economic scale''s effect is climbing. People''s survival has a rising contribution to CO2 emission. CO2 emission per capita has increased, which shows that economic scale has greater impact on CO2 emission than technical progress does. Relatively speaking, Chinese development patterns have become more and more sustainable during this period. Finally, based on the related issues being discussed, some corresponding suggestions are put forward for Chinese government to further coordinate the relationship among economic development and energy consumption and CO2 emission. The proposed indicators can form a set of useful tool for policy-makers to promote the harmonious development of economy and energy and environment in different regions and countries. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Over the last years renewable energy sources have increased their share on electricity generation of China due to environmental and security of supply concerns. In this work author assesses the role of both the amount and share of renewable energy consumption in economic welfare using Cobb–Douglas type production functions. This assessment is carried out by multivariate OLS and SPSS software for China from 1978 to 2008. Results indicate that a 1% increase in renewable energy consumption (REC) increases real GDP by 0.120%, GDP per capita by 0.162%, per capita annual income of rural households by 0.444%, and per capita annual income of urban households by 0.368% respectively; the impact of renewable energy consumption share (SREC) on economic welfare is insignificant, and an increasing share of REC negatively affects economic welfare growth to a certain extent. In this paper, the cost, structural demand, accounting mechanism and policy reasons of renewable energy development are interpreted. Marginal effects analysis show that the shape of sound and robust renewable energy institutions and policies would matter for increasing the standards of economic welfare in the context of speeding up renewable energy development and increasing share of renewable energy consumption, especially the goal-oriented policy refinement should be addressed efficiently in improvement households income while increasing share of renewable energy consumption. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: China has strived to develop new and renewable energy resources to meet its energy demands due to issues of pollution, sustainability, and climate change related to the consumption of fossil fuels. Offshore wind power development in coastal China has attracted more and more attention because it can not only utilize the abundant natural resources but also relieve power constraint in coastal China. This paper studies the development of offshore wind power in China, providing information including the wind resources in China''s coastal areas, policies promulgated by the central government to favor the sound development of offshore wind power, regional planning and progress of offshore wind power, R&D of offshore wind power technology and theory, as well as the pilot projects set up in Shanghai and Jiangsu. In addition, challenges related to offshore wind power development are depicted, and recommendations are provided. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Year 2010 is the significant year of offshore wind power development in China. The first national offshore wind power project is connected to the grid, and the first round of concession projects marks the strong support from central government. It is foreseeable that offshore wind power capacity in China will expand rapidly, and play a notable role in the transition to a sustainable energy system, therefore, the understanding pattern of it is crucial for analyzing the overall wind market in China and global offshore wind power development. This paper firstly provides an overview of global offshore wind power development, then in China, including historical installation, potential of resources, demonstration and concession projects, and target of development. Furthermore, a comprehensive overview of advantages and challenges for developing offshore wind in China is presented. Based on this, analysis on current policies related to offshore wind power and their implementation, current wind farm developers and turbine manufacturers as well as technology transfer and development of China''s offshore wind industry is done. All the previous analysis generates complete evaluation of current status and future perspectives of China offshore wind power development, based on which some policy recommendations for sustainable development of offshore wind power are made. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: With the rapid development of the society, energy demand is becoming more urgent. So it is necessary to exploit the renewable energy because of the limited conventional energy. This paper introduced the current development situation of the renewable energy, analyzed the subsidy policy and discussed the problems of the electricity price mechanisms and policies in China. Finally we got the conclusion that government should formulate more policies to encourage private and foreign enterprises to invest renewable energy industries as well as to apply the CDM mechanism. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The steady and maintainable energy supply for human development provides the strong motivation, which is necessary to every country in the whole world. The high strength carbon emissions has brought great harm to the earth since industrialization before hundreds of years, and the global warming and extreme weather cause humans to develop low-carbon economy. Low-carbon economy has become a consensus of the entire human race no matter developed countries or developing countries, which is the combination of the lifestyle changing and production structure basic changing and technical innovation. It is well known that China is the largest developing country in the world. With the rapid industrialization of country, energy demand of Chinese society is increasing in an incredible speed, China has become the second largest energy consumer and the first carbon emissions country at present. Furthermore, Chinese energy structure and production methods are very inappropriate, which cannot guarantee the sustainable development of China in future, and therefore actively developing low-carbon economy is the only road to realize China''s economic development mode change and sustainable development, which is supported by central government and local governments. Low carbon economy for China is not only an opportunity but also a great challenge. Firstly, this paper discusses the current situation of energy supply and energy structure in China. Secondly, current situation of units’ energy consumption in China is discussed. Thirdly, some application practices of low carbon are described, such as low carbon traffic, low carbon city, and low carbon village. Then, the policies and law of China central government and local governments are described in the following paragraphs. At the end, the developmental prospect of low carbon economy in future China and the development barriers and recommendations are introduced, respectively. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper firstly presents an overview of wind energy potential in China and discusses the features of small wind power system deployment. Then it reviews the current status of small wind power development in China. The future perspectives of and barriers to small wind power development in China are predicted and analyzed. Finally some policies for promoting small wind power development in China are recommended. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the current status of small wind power in China and some insights into the prospects of small wind power market in China. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Nowadays and in the coming years, increased attention is being given to the tidal current energy development all over the world. China is a country endowed with abundant tidal current energy resources. In this paper, the distribution of tidal current energy in China was presented. Policies and current status of usage and technology development of tidal current power generation in China were introduced. Meanwhile, special focus was given to the research programs being carried out and the achievements made. Finally, existing challenges were addressed and the future perspectives of tidal current energy development in China were provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Along the eastcoasts of China are large bodies of water, China has abundant ocean energy resource, such as the theory reserves of tidal resource is about 0.2billionkW, as early as 1958, Jizhou tidal power station is the first tidal power station in China, which built in Shunde, Guangdong province, and more than 40 small tidal power stations are built in east coastal region in 1960s, and the total installed capacity is about 0.5MW. But it is a pity, the application and development of tidal energy has not been regarded by the government and ordinary people due to the investment of power plant is big and the technology is not mature, so there are only several small tidal power stations in China, and Jiangxia tidal power station with an installed capacity of 3.2MW is the most famous. Fortunately, with the rapid development of Chinese economic and society, the renewable and sustainable energy have been regarded by Chinese government, and the application and development of wind energy and solar energy is increasing in an incredible speed, and more and more specialists began to regard the application of tidal energy, and they thought that tidal energy can relieve the energy stress of east coastal region, and many layout of tidal energy exploitation is unfold in recently. This paper discusses the distribution zone and current developmental situation of tidal energy in China. Then, some application practice is described, such as tidal power station and tidal stream turbine. The policies and law of China central government and local governments are described in the following paragraph. At the end, the developmental prospect of tidal energy in future China and the development barriers and recommendations are introduced, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: With the largest population living in rural areas, the lack of clean energy supply is an important problem in China, and the utilization of renewable energy not only meets the demand of energy, but also provides a basis for environmental protection and sustainable development. This paper reviews use of clean energy in a resource-rich region, including the basic principle of the development of recycling agriculture, the potential, the present status and the future of renewable energy in the region rural areas. If the project will be finished, there will be 300,000 families benefiting from it and it can bring at least 2.2×108 US dollars revenue increase directly, the indirect revenue increase will be 0.15billion US dollars, the environment will be improved and the living standard in Jincheng''s rural areas is also be greatly improved because of developing biogas project. Based on the developing status and constraint conditions, the solutions to further promote renewable energy projects in this region are also proposed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper explores an integrated approach to utilize indigenous renewable energy to improve energy self-sufficiency and emission reduction in the rural households of Guangxi province in China. A simple cost-benefit simulation model is constructed to (i) analyze the financial and environmental cost under the present rural consumption structure; (ii) analyze the economic and environmental cost and benefits of utilizing rural renewable energy. Recommendations for scaling up utilization of rural renewable energy are also made. The results of the study are: rural renewable energy and energy efficiency can provide both economic and environmental benefits. But as they require higher up-front investment than conventional energy sources, public support and policy incentives should be provided and financing mechanism should be innovated. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The world has been suffering dramatically increasing energy consumption during recent years. As the biggest developing country, China has a more urgent situation. To highlight the promising potential of renewable energy may be the only solution. Due to the vast sea area and continuous coast line of 18,000km, China has an excellent tidal current energy resource, which has good prospect for development. In this paper, the development of tidal current in China is briefly reviewed. The description is focused on the tidal current energy resource and the status of conversion technologies in China. Finally, the opportunities of the development of tidal current in China, including the urgent energy situation, the increasing pressure on reducing emissions, national policies for tidal current energy development and the increase of investment, are discussed in detail. A conclusion is made that the tidal current energy ought to be an important option for China in terms of renewable energy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Studying the barriers and opportunities of using clean development mechanism (CDM) to advance renewable energy deployment in China has a practical significance to achieve its ambitious renewable energy plan which affects the global efforts to curb carbon emission. This paper analyses the role of CDM in promoting renewable energy development in China by reviewing the CDM activities, especially renewable energy CDM activities in China. There are three barriers to utilizing CDM for renewable energy deployment, namely the dilemma of additionality, lower proportional certified emission reduction credit revenues on the investment, and the lack of incentive for technology transfer. Whereas the opportunities of using CDM in promoting renewable energy development include the international carbon market redirection to renewable energy, Chinese renewable energy boom driven by a series of effective energy policies, and additional finance from CDM supporting Chinese renewable energy development. Based on the study on the barriers and opportunities, the article considers that CDM is an indispensable incentive and a viable choice to promote renewable energy deployment in China. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: As a physical assessment of the sustainability of the China society, presented in this paper is an exergy-based systems account for resources use and environmental emissions of the China society in 2006 as the most recent year with statistics availability. Exergy analysis is applied to elucidate the resources flows from the natural environment into the society, between other countries or regions and the society, between the sectors of the society, and the emissions outflows into the natural environment from different sectors. For the China society broken down into seven sectors (i.e., extraction, conversion, agriculture, industry, transportation, tertiary and households) as one of the most complicated cases, systems account of environmental emissions as greenhouse gases and “three wastes” is carried out for the first time, combined with an updated resources account. The total societal exergy consumption amounts to 101.1EJ, of which 93.6% is due to resources use accounted as 94.6EJ, of which 23.2% is by the industry sector, 22.8% by conversion, 20.4% by households, 12.3% by agriculture, 9.0% by tertiary, 6.9% by extraction and 5.4% by transport, and 6.4% due to environmental emissions accounted as 6481.6PJ, including greenhouse gas emissions of 5706.1PJ, with the highly remarkable fraction of 49.05% from CH4 of the same importance as 50.91% from CO2 and only 0.04% from N2O, and “three wastes” emissions of only 775.5PJ. The extraction sector is shown as the leading emitter with 32.6% of the total emissions, followed by the industry with 20.0%, agriculture with 17.3%, and conversion sector with 16.8%. To characterize the network performance in context of environmental resources from a systems ecological perspective, exergy-based ecological efficiency and resources conversion coefficient are found as 88.8% and 91.3% for the extraction sector, 29.0% and 30.0% for the conversion sector, 31.5% and 33.5% for the agriculture sector, 34.8% and 36.1% for the industry sector, 16.3% and 17.3% for the transportation sector, 38.4% and 38.5% for the tertiary sector, and only 1.3% and 1.3% for the households sector, respectively. Comparisons with other societies and with China society in previous years are made to further illustrate the physical sustainability of the societal system on the international and development horizons. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper examines the current situation of wind industry development, evaluates the potentials of GHG mitigation and identifies the key determinants of scaling up wind power deployment in China. China has doubled its wind capacity every year for the past 4 years, the total installed capacity reached 12 Gigawatts (GW) and surpassed the 10-GW target 2 years ahead of schedule in the national plan for renewable energy development ,and would reach 100–120GW by 2020 according to the government’s new energy plan. It may become the biggest wind power generation and wind turbines manufacturing country of the world in the next years if the abundant wind resources and enormous domestic market can be harnessed with appropriate policies and efficient technology. The recent positive move in vigorous development of wind power in China implies that the total installed capacity will far exceed the targets of the government’s 2007 renewable energy plan. However, the prosperous Chinese wind market has also revealed some worrisome signals and weakness , such as low capacity factor and frequent outage of wind farms, inadequate grid infrastructure, long distance transmission, low quality of turbines, adverse price bidding, nepotism in wind farm developer selection process and regulatory uncertainty and policy inconsistency which all conspire to hinder effective power generation in the massively new installed wind capacities. A coherent policy framework is required for creating enabling environment for accelerating wind energy penetration and state-of-art technology deployment in the country. It is argued that institutional, financial and technical capacity will need to be cemented to exploit the huge potentials of wind resources to meet the rapidly growing demand for electricity in China in the coming decades with minimised environmental implications. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Global warming, increased energy demand, and tremendous air pollution are forcing China to revise its energy structure of electricity generation dominated by coal (80% of total electricity) towards low-carbon electricity. Vigorous development of carbon-free energy resources of electricity is a practical way towards low-carbon electricity in China. In this paper, we shall outline renewable power generation (hydropower, wind power, solar energy, biomass energy, nuclear power, ocean energy and geothermal) together with nuclear power for China, present a reserves assessment, the current status, and barriers for further development, and finish with an outlook towards the future. In our view, China has plenty of free-carbon energy resources to revolutionize its electricity structure and redirect it towards low-carbon electricity systems. Needed are the effective energy policies to get to the way. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper surveys China''s renewable energy economy, focusing particularly on renewable energy laws and programs, the lessons that can be learnt from the current literature, and the implications of that literature. Gaps in the literature on China''s renewable energy economy include the need for more comprehensive econometric studies. The literature may also benefit from more collaboration between renewable energy economists and agricultural economists. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Because of the pressing need for maintaining a healthy environment with reasonable costs, China is moving toward the trend for generating electricity from renewable resources. Both solar energy and wind power have received a tremendous attention from private associations, political groups, and electric power companies to generate power on a large scale. A drawback is their unpredictable nature and dependence on weather. Fortunately, the problems can be partially tackled by using the strengths of one source to overcome the weakness of the other. Especially, a large fraction of the solar resource is available at times of peak electrical load. However, the complexity of using two different resources together makes the hybrid solar-wind generation systems more difficult to analyze. Accordingly, this paper first briefly introduces the solar-wind generation system and next develops its critical success criteria. Then, a fuzzy analytic hierarchy process associated with benefits, opportunities, costs and risks, is proposed to help select a suitable solar-wind power generation project. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: China has the abundant agro-residue resources, producing more than 630 million tons of agro-residues in 2006, and amounting to about 20% of total energy consumption in rural areas. Efficient utilization of enormous agro-residues resource is crucial for providing bioenergy, releasing risk of environmental pollution, and increasing farmers’ income. The paper presented the feasibility of densified solid biofuels technology for utilizing agro-residues in China. The output and distribution of agro-residues in recent 10 years, the R&D of briquetting technology, and the market of densified solid biofuels from agro-residues in China have been analyzed. The result indicated that the abundant agro-residue resources can provide the economical and sustainable raw material for densified solid biofuels development in China. The R&D of briquetting technology at present can strongly support the large scale production of densified solid biofuels. With continued improvement and cost reduction of briquetting technology, along with the support of nation energy policy on biomass energy, the market of densified solid biofuels from agro-residues in China will be more fully deployed. Based on the above mentioned key factors, development of densified solid biofuels from agro-residues in China will be promising and feasible. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Wind power in China registered a record level of expansion recently, and has doubled its total capacity every year since 2004. Many experts believe that China will be central to the future of the global wind energy market. Consequently, the growth pattern of wind power in China may be crucial to the further development of the global wind market. This paper firstly presented an overview of wind energy potential in China and reviewed the national wind power development course in detail. Based on the installed wind capacity in China over the past 18 years and the technical potential of wind energy resources, the growth pattern was modeled in this study for the purpose of prospect analysis, in order to obtain projections concerning the development potential. The future perspectives of wind energy development in China are predicted and analyzed. This study provides a comprehensive overview of the current status of wind power in China and some insights into the prospects of China''s wind power market, which is emerging as a new superpower in the global wind industry. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Energy storage technologies (EST) facilitate the efficient utilization of renewable energy sources and energy conservation, and they are expected to be more prevalent in the future. There is a great potential to substitute the use of EST for burning of fossil fuels by using stored heat that would otherwise be wasted and using renewable generation resources. These energy sources can be used more effectively through the addition of short- or long-term energy storage, even to the seasonal thermal energy storage. Underground thermal energy storage (UTES) is one form of EST, and perhaps the most frequently used storage technology in North America and Europe. Gradually it is growing as the application of ground source heat pump (GSHP) with UTES in China. But UTES systems involve complicated unsteady processes that include energy rejection, accumulation, preservation and extraction. This paper reviewed the progress of UTES companioning with GSHP worldwide, and surveyed the development of GSHP and the origination of UTES, especially as to soil/rock UTES. Meanwhile, the basic proposal for development in the future to supply a gap in the field of UTES in China was presented. A coming work should aim to more researching basic problems during the demonstration application, such as investigation of mechanisms, characteristics and performance of the unsteady and transient heat transfer in a complex underground environment, and control strategies of the UTES system. These problems will strengthen theoretical and practical understanding and facilitate more extensive application of UTES in China. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Limited fossil resources and severe environmental problems require new sustainable electricity generation options, which utilize renewable energies and are economical in the meantime. Concentrating solar power (CSP) generation is a proven renewable energy technology and has the potential to become cost-effective in the future, for it produces electricity from the solar radiation. In China, the electricity demand is rapidly increasing, while the solar resources and large wasteland areas are widely available in the western and northern part of China. To change the energy-intensive and environment-burdensome economical development way, Chinese government supports the development of this technology strongly. These factors altogether make China a suitable country for utilizing CSP technology. In this paper, the potential of CSP in China was studied and strategies to promote development of this technology were given. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: As the largest developing country in the world, China is urgently in short of energy and natural resources. However, biological resources such as crop residues are burnt in the field, which cause serious environmental pollution. Still it is not clear how much storage and potential of these huge crop residues are in China. This paper firstly reported the distribution, utilization structure and potential of crop biomass and provided the tangible information of crop residues in rural China through careful collecting and recalculating data. From 1995 to 2005, China produces some 630 million tons of crop residues per year, 50% of which comes from east and central south of China. The amount of crop residues is 1.3 times of the total yield of crops, 2 times of the total fodder of grassland, which covers 41% of China''s territory. Crop residues of corn, wheat and rice amounted to 239, 137 and 116 million tons, respectively, accounting for nearly 80% of the total crop residues. Unfortunately, the utilizing structure is seriously improper for such abundant biomass resources. Although 23% of the crop residues are used for forage, 4% for industry materials and 0.5% for biogas, the large parts are used with lower efficiency or wasted, with 37% being directly combusted by farmers, 15% lost during collection and the rest 20.5% discarded or directly burnt in the field. Reasonable adjustment of the utilizing pattern and popularization of the recycling agriculture are essential out-ways for residues, with the development of the forage industry being the breakthrough point. We suggested that utilizing the abandoned 20.5% of the total residues for forage and combining agriculture and stock raising can greatly improve the farm system and cut down fertilizer pollution. Through the development of forage industries, the use efficiency of crop residues could be largely enhanced. Commercializing and popularizing technologies of biomass gasification and liquefaction might be substitute solutions of China''s energy shortage. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper analyses the present situation of renewables international cooperation in China and India and the reasons, basis and conditions of China-India cooperation for renewable energy and explores China-India cooperation strategies for renewable energy. This study indicates that (1) the two countries have made a lot of progress in the international cooperation of renewable energy, but China-India cooperation for renewable energy is still in its primary stage; (2) there are not only the common benefits but also the solid basis and good conditions for China-India cooperation in the field of renewable energy; (3) there is need to explore and design the cooperation strategies for renewable energy of China and India in order to strengthen renewables cooperation between two countries. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

China is the second largest energy consumer in the world. This paper reviews the production and consumption of traditional and renewable energy in China over the past three decades. It also presents an overview on the research and development of renewable energy, such as solar, biomass, geothermal, ocean and wind energy in China. Study indicated that the usage of renewable energy in China shows a promising prospect in the near future, of which biomass is found to be one of the most promising renewable energy resources that have great potential for development in China. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The local biomass resources have been used in rural China for quite a long time, which has a close connection with and will inevitably affect the environment. In recent years, China has experienced rapid economic growth and equally rapid increases in energy use, especially commercial energy, in rural areas. As a result, energy induced environmental degradation has also increased in rural China. This paper discusses the relationship between China’s rural energy and its sustainable development. It brings forward the index system for appraising the sustainable development of rural energy (SDRE), calculates the weighing of each index with analytic hierarchy process (AHP), puts forward the quantification method and provides the basis for the research of the rural energy for sustainable development in different areas and periods. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]