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This paper provides a comprehensive review on the status of renewable energy developments and hydrogen economy in the Middle East and North Africa region. This region is heavily reliant on fossil fuels for its domestic energy supply and is also considered a global energy exporter. In this regard, an overview of the current state of energy sector in the region is provided. Moreover, the region possesses great potential for renewable energy exploitation due to its climatic advantages. Therefore, the current status of renewable energy utilization within the region's various countries is reviewed by presenting several operational renewable energy-based plants and future projects for deployment of renewable power in the region. Green hydrogen is an important sustainable clean fuel, and its utilization is essential for both environmental preservation and energy security. Thus, the status of hydrogen production and utilization in the region is discussed considering the various operational systems and future hydrogen generation projects. The concept of source, system and service is also incorporated which considers the utilization of clean energy sources for sustainable hydrogen production through environmentally benign pathways. The potential deployment opportunities for the renewable hydrogen production are also discussed based on available renewable sources in the region. Moreover, this paper discusses the challenges of increasing renewable energy utilization in the region. Furthermore, this paper provides a road map for achieving renewable hydrogen economy including a reduction in domestic utilization of oil and gas sources, subsidization of renewable production sector, and financial support to hydrogen production and transportation infrastructure. • Providing an overview of the status of energy sector in the region. • Providing an overview of the status of renewable energy utilization in the region. • Discussing the challenges and opportunities of renewable and hydrogen energy development in the region. • Providing a road map for renewable hydrogen development in the region. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Improvement of thermal performance of a solar air heater can be obtained by enhancing the rate of heat transfer. Thermal efficiency of matrix solar air heater is higher in comparison to conventional type. Number of studies has been reported in the literature on the performance of matrix air heater with different material packing and elaborated various parameters such as design; heat transfer enhancement, flow phenomenon and pressure drop in the duct. Majority of the studies revealed an increase in the thermal efficiency for matrix collector as compared to conventional plane solar air heater. This review paper presents an extensive study of the research carried out on matrix solar air heater. Based on literature review, it is concluded that the solar air heaters performed well when packed with porous medium and this is due to the geometrical parameters of porous material. In addition double pass porous bed solar air heaters performed better than single pass. Various types of matrix materials used in the literature and correlations developed for heat transfer and friction factor by different researchers have been presented. Much attention has been devoted in this paper to portrait the development of various types of solar air heaters over the years. The merits and demerits of different models evolved by many researchers have been critically analyzed. Finding in a nut shell is that the drawbacks associated with conventional nonporous solar air heaters such as high heat loss to the ambient, decreased convective heat flow from plate to air, etc. can be overcome by the use of an effective design of porous bed solar air heater. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given that the first industrial revolution was based on Steam Engine (coal as energy source), and the second on oil and electricity, where both these revolutions are actually "high carbon" revolutions, it is logical to expect that the third industrial revolution should be based on systems of renewable energy sources (RES), in order to minimize the problems arising from climate changes and to achieve sustainable development. However, the usage of the RES technologies and daily/weekly storage of energy and their connection to smart grids is not enough for the expected third industrial revolution. The start of this revolution would require technologies that have a great potential for further development and ability to supply, at any time, the necessary energy and power to a settlement/city, as well as drinking water, meeting the peak load requirements, continuously throughout the year, and independently of external sources of energy and drinking water. This would be provided from intermittent RES energy (solar, wind, etc.) and sea or other unclean source of water as natural resources. In that context, this paper presents a radically new technological solution: Key Engine which uses only natural resources: the sun, sea and gravity, in order to continuously and simultaneously supply a consumer with energy, power and drinking water. This solution has all the essential features required to start a third industrial revolution. The basic unit of Key Engine consists of the solar thermal (ST) generator with parabolic trough collectors through which sea water flows directly, absorbing thermal energy of solar radiation. After the separation of steam from seawater, the steam drives turbines and generators and produces electricity that is delivered to Pump Storage Hydroelectric (PSH) facility with seawater, which balances the daily and seasonal surpluses and shortages of energy, thus ensuring a continuous supply of electric power and energy to a consumer. At the same time, the water that comes out of the turbine, passes through the water treatment unit and is stored in drinking water reservoir, enabling continuous supply of the same consumer with drinking water. The paper presents theoretical aspects of Key Engine, model for optimal sizing and practical formulas for the calculation of characteristic values of the system, which could be the basis for further scientific research, development and innovative solutions that would help engineers in practice for numerous and diverse applications of Key Engine. In order to verify the derived mathematical relationships and models for optimizing the Key Engine in real conditions, the case study of the island of Vis in the Adriatic Sea, Croatia, has been considered, along with total annual irradiance of 1575 kW h/m 2 a, total annual electric energy consumption of 20 GW h and drinking water consumption of 453,382 m 3 . The obtained results: power of ST generator of 52 MW, working volume of the upper reservoir of 7 hm 3 , total annual electric energy production of 62 GW h/a, and drinking water production of 480,754 m 3 /a, clearly show that the new technology can fully meet the needs of the considered consumer for energy and drinking water. As the basic idea of Key Engine relies on the use of natural resources, i.e. RES energy and sea, the paper presents only the starting solution, whereby, apart from the sun, RES can be wind, or other renewable sources, that can perform separation of vapor from seawater and thus produce drinking water, as well as energy simultanously. Also, energy storage may not be performed solely by the PSH technology, but also by any other technology that can provide seasonal balancing of energy. All this suggests that the Key Engine can be understood as an open-source for RES technology development and thus bring changes in all three aspects of sustainable development: economy, society and environment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A sustainable energy system can be treated as a development of the distributed generation concept. It meets energy demands locally from renewable energy or/and high-efficiency polygeneration production technologies, and is characterized by energy and cost efficiency, reliability, and environmental-friendliness. Distributed energy systems typically use renewable energy resources to supply all energy demands, such as heat, cooling, and electric power in an integrated way. However, it seems that too much emphasis is placed on power and associated renewable energy-based power technologies for dealing with sustainability issues in public discussion and the research community. Often, equally important thermal energy (heat and cooling) and polygeneration are ignored. Polygeneration is an energy-efficient technology for generating simultaneously heat and power as well as other energy products in a single integrated process. Energy efficiency contributes significantly to CO 2 emission reduction. This paper discusses the role of polygeneration in a distributed energy system and the contributions of polygeneration to the development of sustainable energy systems. The paper also stresses that efficient decision support tools for sustainable polygeneration systems are important to achieve sustainability. First, the joint characteristic of a polygeneration plant that defines the dependency between different energy products is reviewed. Then, typical methods for dealing with polygeneration systems are reviewed. The review attempts to highlight the complexity of polygeneration systems and potential of polygeneration systems to adjust output of different energy products. Next, the challenges of sustainable polygeneration energy systems are discussed. Then some practices for operating polygeneration plants are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction of renewable energy sources (RES) in insular areas is growing on different islands of various regions in the world and the large-scale deployment of renewables in island power systems is appealing to local attention of grid operators as a method to decrease fossil fuel consumption. Planning a grid based on renewable power plants (RPP) presents serious challenges to the normal operation of a power system, precisely on voltage and frequency stability. Despite of its inherent problems, there is a consensus that in near future the RES could supply most of local needs without depending exclusively on fossil fuels. In previous grid code compliance, wind turbines did not required services to support grid operation. Thus, in order to shift to large-scale integration of renewables, the insular grid code ought to incorporate a new set of requirements with the intention of regulating the inclusion of these services. Hence, this paper discusses grid code requirements for large-scale integration of renewables in an island context, as a new contribution to earlier studies. The current trends on grid code formulation, towards an improved integration of distributed renewable resources in island power systems, are addressed. The paper also discusses advanced grid code requirement concepts such as virtual wind inertia and synthetic inertia for improving regulation capability of wind farms and the application of energy storage systems (EES) for enhancing renewable generation integration. Finally, a comparative analysis of insular grid code compliance to these requirements is presented in the European context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Development of alternative energy sources has become a necessity as fossil energy resources are declining. At the same time, energy demand is rapidly increasing, putting the world on the verge of a global energy crisis. Moreover, the extensive use of conventional energy sources is polluting the environment and causing global warming. On the other hand, wind and other renewable energy sources are viable and clean alternatives to fossil fuels. Low operating cost and extensive availability make wind one of the most advantageous and effective renewable energy sources. This paper provides an exposure to the necessity for deployment of renewable energy sources and the worldwide installed capacity of wind power as well as a review of various wind technologies in conjunction with their applications and devices of operation. Furthermore, this paper discusses the cost of electric generation in wind power plants as well as the economic and environmental policies that advocate the installation of wind energy systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The solar energy generation has grown significantly in the past years. The importance of PV penetration in power system as a major element of renewable energy source has seen it being widely used on a global scale. Despite its promising success, PV penetration presents various issues and its impact on the distribution system has to address for seamless integration in the power system. In this paper, a comprehensive overview on important issues affecting the distribution system as a result of PV penetration is presented. Pertinent issues such as voltage fluctuation, voltage rise, voltage balance, and harmonics and their effect on the system are discussed in details. The islanding issues, which are of critical importance to the stability and integrity of the system, are also thoroughly reviewed. Details on different islanding techniques – remote and local techniques and their advantage and disadvantages are shown. Therefore, this paper can provide useful information and serve as a reference for researchers and utility engineers on issues to be considered with regards to PV penetration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable energy hybrid power systems have been proven through their ability to address the limitations of single renewable energy system in terms of power efficiency, stability, and reliability while operating at minimum cost. In this regards many research and practical experiences have been done. The present paper reviews the different hybrid PV–Wind renewable energy hybrid systems used for electrical power generations. Different criteria of sizing the different system components of hybrid renewable energy power plant at the most preferable logistical environmental and economical considerations have been discussed. Also, the paper discussed some of the optimization approaches which are used to compare the energy production cost and performance of different hybrid system configurations using simulation techniques. Based on the fact that, potential of the wind and solar energy is not equal in Oman, this paper will discuss the optimum sizing process of two proposed hybrid PV–Wind plants in Oman. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mitigations of global energy demands, climate change and energy related greenhouse gas effects are the most important factors in the modern days. However, renewable energy is one of the alternative sources which has the capacity to mitigate all the above. Among all the renewable energy sources, solar energy is one of the most abundant and the cleanest energy source. Different laboratories of the world have achieved different solar cell efficiencies, which are also discussed in the present paper. This paper presents the global solar PV developments, per capita values, government supportive invectives and policies of the top ten solar power producing countries. This paper also presents the investments of the global solar energy among the countries. Finally, through the study, it is found that these top ten leading countries are following fulfilment of their projections, supportive tariff rates, net metering, green certificates and government incentive policies as their instruments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main goal of this paper is to argue for the necessity and significance of studying the distributional employment impacts of renewable and new energy development (RNE). Based on the comprehensive review of the methodology and conclusions of existing literatures, this paper builds up an extended input–output model to study RNE’s distributional employment impacts on gender and personnel structure. The case study of China׳s power sector in this paper affirmed earlier doubts that RNE development will indeed aggravate the gender inequality problem and add to the level of mismatch between the structure of labor demand and supply, causing structural unemployment problems. The quantitative analysis in this paper outlined here implies that from 2011 to 2020 the development of RNE will bring about 7 million employment gains, but only 81.8% of which can be realized due to the mismatch problem. The study of China may alert other countries to be less-optimistic about RNE’s employment impacts and reaffirm the need to carry out the distributional employment impacts analysis. This paper concludes with policy suggestions such as providing suitable training and equal promotion opportunities for women, offering courses and vocational trainings to RNE-related majors, in order to reduce the structural unemployment problem and further speed up the development of RNE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy subsidies can incentivise the overconsumption of energy resources and contribute to other economic or social distortions. In this paper, an ex-post analysis is presented that explores the extent to which electricity subsidy reform could have reduced Iran's energy demand during the period 1984–2017. It also quantifies the techno-economic and environmental benefits that could have been achieved through such reforms. A time-varying econometric model is linked to an energy systems optimisation model. The former estimates electricity demand under different subsidy removal scenarios, and the latter identifies the cost-optimal generation mix to meet the demand. The results of cost-optimal transition pathways under subsidy removal scenarios are compared with the real-world energy system development during the study horizon. The comparison reveals that the subsidy reform could have reduced the total cumulative electricity consumption by 22%. Renewable share in power generation could have increased from 5% to 15%. Moreover, the reform combined with a cost-optimal generation pathway would have saved $69 billion and avoided 944 million tons of CO 2 emissions. The analysis also shows that every five-year delay in subsidy removal causes about 100 million tons of additional CO 2 emissions. Finally, the paper presents lessons learnt for future energy modelling. • An ex-post analysis quantifies the benefits of energy subsidy reform in the power sector. • The total cumulative electricity consumption could have been reduced by 22%. • Renewable share in power generation could have tripled. • Subsidy reforms combined with cost-optimal generation could have saved $69 billion. • The paper presents lessons learnt for future energy modelling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Energy subsidies can incentivise the overconsumption of energy resources and contribute to other economic or social distortions. In this paper, an ex-post analysis is presented that explores the extent to which electricity subsidy reform could have reduced Iran's energy demand during the period 1984–2017. It also quantifies the techno-economic and environmental benefits that could have been achieved through such reforms. A time-varying econometric model is linked to an energy systems optimisation model. The former estimates electricity demand under different subsidy removal scenarios, and the latter identifies the cost-optimal generation mix to meet the demand. The results of cost-optimal transition pathways under subsidy removal scenarios are compared with the real-world energy system development during the study horizon. The comparison reveals that the subsidy reform could have reduced the total cumulative electricity consumption by 22%. Renewable share in power generation could have increased from 5% to 15%. Moreover, the reform combined with a cost-optimal generation pathway would have saved $69 billion and avoided 944 million tons of CO 2 emissions. The analysis also shows that every five-year delay in subsidy removal causes about 100 million tons of additional CO 2 emissions. Finally, the paper presents lessons learnt for future energy modelling. • An ex-post analysis quantifies the benefits of energy subsidy reform in the power sector. • The total cumulative electricity consumption could have been reduced by 22%. • Renewable share in power generation could have tripled. • Subsidy reforms combined with cost-optimal generation could have saved $69 billion. • The paper presents lessons learnt for future energy modelling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The global demand for energy is currently growing beyond the limits of installable generation capacity. To meet future energy demands efficiently, energy security and reliability must be improved and alternative energy sources must be investigated aggressively. An effective energy solution should be able to address long-term issues by utilizing alternative and renewable energy sources. Of the many available renewable sources of energy, solar energy is clearly a promising option as it is extensively available. Solar power, especially as it reaches more competitive levels with other energy sources in terms of cost, may serve to sustain the lives of millions of underprivileged people in developing countries. Furthermore, solar energy devices can benefit the environment and economy of developing countries. This paper illustrates the need for the utilization of alternative energy sources, evaluates the global scenario of installed generation systems, reviews technologies underlying various solar powered devices, and discusses several applications and challenges in this area. In addition, this paper addresses the costs of deployment, maintenance, and operation, as well as economic policies that promote installation of solar energy systems. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The quality of life and safeness of the present and future generations are strongly intertwined with the availability of energy sources and the sustainability of the energy infrastructure. Energy consumption in developed countries grows at a rate of approximately 1% per year, and that of developing countries, 5% per year (Muneer et al., 2005 ). Present reserves of oil and natural gas can only cover consumption at this rate for the next 50 years in the case of oil, and for the next 70 years in the case of natural gas. Therefore, one of the fundamental priorities for a country such as Algeria is to use several renewable energies (RE) sources and environmentally friendly energy conversion technologies. Algeria is endowed with large reserves of energy sources, mainly hydrocarbons and a considerable potential for the utilisation of RE sources especially with respect to solar energy. Algeria has the potential to be one of the major contributors in solar energy and become a role model to other countries in the world. RE are now one of the major elements of Algeria''s energy policy and in view of boosting the national effort in terms of RE beyond 2011, Algeria has developed a national programme for the period 2011–2030 to promote concrete actions in the fields of energy efficiency and RE in line with the approach adopted by the government on February 3, 2011. Besides, it confirms Algerian''s ambition to become an international hub for industrial and energy production and exportation in the solar sector. With this in mind, along with the environmental responsibility issues, public awareness gradually increased over the last seven years and alternative energy resources have become a new area of interest. As a tangible target, the Ministry of Energy and Mines (MEM) strategic plan aims to reach a 40% share of RE (mainly solar) in electric energy production by 2030. The various future projects are all factors that will undoubtedly give Algeria an important role in the implementation of RE technology in North Africa, the capacity for providing sustainable supply of cost-effective electricity from RE sources for the needs of the population, and the possibility of even exporting 10,000MW to neighbouring and European market. This paper provides a detailed analysis of the existing renewable energy sector and a forecast for demand growth, additional capacity, investment requirements and Algeria''s ambitious objectives of use of RE and environment protection. The paper also discusses the current energy scenario and explores the alternative energy like solar and wind to ensure energy security supply, reliability, greater efficiency in energy conversion, transmission and utilisation. Particular attention is paid to Algeria''s global and sustainable solutions of the environmental challenges and the problems of conservation of fossil energy resources under the clean development mechanism (CDM) structure. The report also provides a detailed analysis of the existing renewable energy sector and a forecast for demand growth, additional capacity, and investment requirements [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The goal of this paper is to analyze recent developments in the renewable energy sector in the Western Balkans – Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Kosovo, Macedonia, Montenegro, Serbia, and Slovenia. In order to achieve this goal, existing knowledge gaps regarding the use of renewable energy as a share of the region׳s final energy consumption had to be filled in. This was done by creating a reliable model for the calculation of these shares for the years 2010 and 2011. The results were then put together with the official data for the years 2009, 2012, and 2013, and a linear trend forecast was included based on the combined data. In this way it was possible to make an estimation of the time frame in which the countries with positive linear trend results would reach their renewable energy use targets. The results of the analysis show inconsistent development of renewable energy sources for countries outside of the EU. Combined with political challenges, such as the natural gas crisis of 2009, this creates increased volatility in the proportion of renewable energy in final energy consumption. Additionally, regulatory and market issues ranging from a lack of appropriate legislation and complicated administrative procedures, to poor coordination between various institutions act as barriers to increased investment in renewable energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: An initiative namely “SAVE or EXOIKONOMO” is implemented in Greece and includes development and implementation of municipal investment plans for sustainable energy development in urban areas. However, a part of the investments’ funds is covered by the government and most of the municipalities have serious difficulties in successful participation in this initiative. As a result, further efforts and “new” financial mechanisms are necessary in order to support the implementation of sustainable energy investments in urban areas. The scope of the current paper is to investigate the potential of implementing “JESSICA” as a complementary financing mechanism in the context of the development of sustainable energy investments. In specific, the successful financing of the strategic plan by Rhodes Municipality in Greece for improving energy efficiency is analyzed in this paper. Based on the results, the utilization of JESSICA for financing sustainable energy investments in urban areas of municipal authorities seems to fit well into the overall requirements of JESSICA as a financing mechanism of integrated urban development. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper deals with fundamental policy mistakes in Pakistan for the cause of sustainable development through renewable energy. It then identifies that the low level of awareness regarding the potentials of renewable energy is the key hurdle in achieving the said cause. The paper further traces the root cause of this low awareness in educational and S&T policies of Pakistan and finally provides some recommendations to avoid dilemmas related to such policies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Renewable energy sources and technologies have potential to provide solutions to the long-standing energy problems being faced by the developing countries. The renewable energy sources like wind energy, solar energy, geothermal energy, ocean energy, biomass energy and fuel cell technology can be used to overcome energy shortage in India. To meet the energy requirement for such a fast growing economy, India will require an assured supply of 3–4 times more energy than the total energy consumed today. The renewable energy is one of the options to meet this requirement. Today, renewable account for about 33% of India''s primary energy consumptions. India is increasingly adopting responsible renewable energy techniques and taking positive steps towards carbon emissions, cleaning the air and ensuring a more sustainable future. In India, from the last two and half decades there has been a vigorous pursuit of activities relating to research, development, demonstration, production and application of a variety of renewable energy technologies for use in different sectors. In this paper, efforts have been made to summarize the availability, current status, major achievements and future potentials of renewable energy options in India. This paper also assesses specific policy interventions for overcoming the barriers and enhancing deployment of renewables for the future. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: There has been a renewed commercial and technical interest in pumped hydro energy storage (PHES) recently with the advent of increased variable renewable energy generation and the development of liberalized electricity markets. During the next 8 years over 7GW of PHES capacity will be added to the European network while projects are also planned in the USA and Japan. This paper provides a review of existing and proposed PHES plant and discusses the technical and economic drivers for these developments. Current trends for new PHES development generally show that developers operating in liberalized markets are tending to repower, enhance projects or build ‘pump-back’ PHES rather than traditional ‘pure pumped storage’. Capital costs per kW for proposed PHES in the review region range between €470/kW and €2170/kW, however these costs are highly site and project specific. An emergence has also been observed in recent PHES developments of the use of variable speed technology. This technology, while incurring slightly higher capital costs, offers a greater range of operational flexibility and efficiency over conventional PHES. This paper has primarily been prompted by a lack of detailed information on PHES facilities worldwide and reviews current developments in the context of market and generation mix changes. The most recent large scale review of PHES faculties was undertaken by the American Society of Civil Engineers Hydro Power Task Committee on Pumped Storage in 1996. In the absence of data in the literature on new PHES plant development, this review draws primarily on publicly available information from utilities, government bodies and electricity regulators. In the same context this study is limited to a review region of the European Union, Japan and the United States as information on developments outside these areas is difficult to procure. This paper also gives a review of locations and proposed timelines for new PHES development and provides a thorough up-to-date overview of the development trends of this technology. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Inter-area low frequency electromagnetic oscillation (LFEO) in inter-connected power systems is one of the major barriers to improve the dynamic performance of power systems, since they could either limit the amount of power transfer on the tie-lines or endanger the dynamic stability of the power systems. With the high penetration of wind and photovoltaic (PV) power plants in power systems, LFEO is becoming a problem worth more attention in renewable energy age and must be better solved in order to accept more wind and PV power in power systems. Wide-area damping control (WADC) has gained popularity in suppression of inter-area LFEO recently. Many control strategies have been developed on WADC design. This paper aims to provide a general review on practical issues, typical WADC off-line and adaptive design methods and engineering cases regarding WADC implementations. These practical issues include design flow, mode analysis, choice of actuator and feedback signal, system identification and the effect of time delay. In terms of designing WADC controllers, both offline and adaptive methods have been reviewed and compared. Finally, WADC engineering cases all around the world are summarized. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Iran is rich in energy resources and oil has dominated the politico-socio-economic life of this country, but nevertheless Iran has no documented policy and vision for its massive resources. This poses a major challenge to policy makers and the society. It is necessary to have a clear picture of Iran׳s energy status in recent years showing the flow of energy supply, demand, consumption, import and export to know how the energy situation in Iran is and identify its weaknesses and strengths. This paper is the first step in that direction and presents an overview of Iran energy situation and the potential and current state of renewable energy application. The status of energy in Iran is compared to world’s energy status via five key factors, and finally this comparison shows hints for designing roadmap of energy for Iran to attain sustainable and secure energy in long term. The novel contribution of this work is the STEEP analysis of Iran energy situation for designing the long-term supporting mechanisms for sustainable and secure energy for Iran based on Social (S), Technological (T), Economical (E), Environmental (E) and Political (P) criteria. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Renewable energy is one of the most popular topics in utilization of the electric energy resources. There are various types of alternative energy, which can be used as electrical energy. However, the suitableness of the green energy in a certain country is depending on some criteria such as geographical location, the availability of energy and so on. In order to establish the renewable energy, a well-planned strategy and management must be acquired. The main objective of this paper is to analyse the causal relation of some important criteria of project planning and development of a wind energy project in Malaysia. By using a system dynamic approach, it is found that government policies, investment of renewable energy, energy demand, geographical location and fund management are the most important criteria that need to be considered among others. The diagram of causal relationship with reinforcing and balancing loop shows that the application of renewable energy in Malaysia is promising. In addition, the information of the criteria relationship is further investigated by using the stock flow diagram. From the diagram, the factors that affect project's expenditure could be analysed. This is very important to a developing country where more budgets can be allocated for other facilities, cultures, infrastructure, science, and technology development. By utilise the renewable energy in Malaysia, the carbon dioxide emission can be reduced and contribution to a sustainable and long term alternative energy resources country. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper provides a comprehensive analysis of the projects aiming the use of renewable energy sources (RES) in Romania, taking into account both the convertible energy potential of this country, as well as the requirements for meeting European Union sustainable energy development targets by 2020. We analyze the current state of renewable energy production facilities in Romania, in correlation with the data collected from 89 energy projects financed through the Operational Sectoral Program Increase of Economic Competitiveness since 2007 until 2013, more than a half of them aiming the development of new RES energy facilities. We also analyze the data quantifying the efficiency of specific investments in renewable energy, in comparison with EU average statistical data and provide some concluding remarks about the difficulties faced by investors during project implementation, given the particularities of the country related with this field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As world population continues to grow, fossil fuels keep decaying and global warming becomes a serious problem, hence meeting the demand of energy is becoming a challenge. After the Fukushima accident in March 2011, more and more people are against the operation of nuclear power plants in Taiwan. Taiwan government has also recognized the increasing need for energy independence, and has passed relevant acts and regulations to promote renewable energy. The purpose of this paper is to provide an overview of renewable energy development in Taiwan. Current conditions and future prospects of six types of renewable energy in Taiwan are discussed: wind energy, ocean energy, solar energy, biomass energy, geothermal energy and hydropower energy. The findings show that solar thermal energy, photovoltaics and wind energy are the most promising renewable energy sources in Taiwan because of Taiwan's geographical characteristics and technological advantages acquired in the related industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Energy crops constitute significant potential for meeting the future energy need worldwide. In addition, agricultural lands offer an alternative to the agriculture which is referred to as energy farming. The studies on energy crops in biofuel production show that they are quite an economical and environmentally beneficial way of sustainable energy production. Today most of the developed countries use staples such as corn, sugar beet, soybean, rapeseed, and wheat in order to obtain energy. Moreover, bioethanol is mostly produced from sugarcane and corn and biodiesel from oilseed plants. Therefore, these produced raw materials compete with food and feed production. Consequently, the use of those energy crops which are used as food products for biofuel production is an important issue which must be considered in terms of the current food safety. Some energy crops, such as miscanthus, switchgrass and sweet sorghum, that are called C4 crops, can grow with high biomass yield even in infertile land. Thus, these crops are used in energy farming – a new type of agriculture. Furthermore, C4-type crops possess the features of resistance to aridity, high photosynthetic yield and a high rate of CO2 capture when compared with C3 crops. In conclusion, C4 crops tend to produce more biomass than C3 crops. Therefore, these crops are investigated, focused on, and elaborated on in this paper. This study aims to present a comprehensive review on the production of biofuels from lignocellulosic agricultural products and promising energy crops. Thus, the energy crops to be used as raw materials for biofuels today and in the future are investigated. In addition, it is intended to highlight the energy crops used as staples by discussing them in detail for biofuel production. The energy crops which are promising in biofuel production, particularly non-staple miscanthus and sorghum, are presented in detail as they are non-food crops and have a high yield. Furthermore, the energy crops used as raw materials for bioenergy today and their potential are compared both worldwide and in Turkey. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Renewable energy plays a crucial role in both climate change mitigation and adaptation in highly climate-vulnerable nations such as Nepal. This paper reviews various types of renewable energy technologies and their status, potential for adoption, relationship to climate change, and mitigative and adaptive roles in Nepal. Nepal has installed micro-hydro projects, solar power, improved cooking stoves, biogas technology, improved water mills, and wind energy to mitigate and adapt to climate change. There is a growing potential for renewable energy development in Nepal, such as hydropower, solar, wind energy, biogas, and improved cooking stoves. Roughly 70% of Nepal's energy consumption is generated from traditional energy sources while renewable energy accounts for approximately three percent. The gradual increase in the use of renewable energy has reduced greenhouse gas emissions and enhanced carbon sequestration. By adopting renewable energy technologies, Nepal has reduced emissions by 221,129 tCO 2 e from 2017 to 2018. Nepal's second Nationally Determined Contribution targets a 15% increase in national energy use from renewables with a reduction of 23% of CO 2 emissions by 2030 using biogas and improved cooking systems. Furthermore, a significant increase in the adoption of renewable energy has become a pivotal strategy in adaptation to climate change in social, health, and economic sectors resulting in time savings, alternative income sources, improved health and educational status, local job opportunities, and the promotion of social capital. The benefits of adapting to climate change and mitigating CO 2 emissions via renewable energy are significant at the local, national, and international levels. This study recommends that the government of Nepal focus work on energy policy reviews to address local energy demand and climate change issues by utilizing renewable energy resources at the local level, which has global implications. • Suitable, potential renewable energy technologies in Nepal. • The relationship between energy and climate change. • Relevant data on energy and climate change in tables and figures. • Social, economic, and environmental benefits of renewable energy. • Climate change adaptation and mitigation via renewable energy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Despite significant financial support from the UK government to stimulate adoption of microgeneration energy technologies, consumer uptake remains low. This paper analyses current understanding of motivations and barriers that affect microgeneration adoption with the aim of identifying opportunities for improving the uptake. The findings indicate that, although feed-in tariffs have increased the uptake, policies do not sufficiently address the most significant barrier – capital costs. ‘Environmental benefit’ appears to be a significant motivation to install, but there is doubt whether consumers are willing to pay extra for that. The issue is complicated by the fact that motivations and barriers differ between segments of the population, particularly with age. Younger age groups are more willing to consider installing but less frequently reach the point of installation, suggesting that other barriers such as costs prevent them from installing. Further investigation into these factors is required to understand how uptake may be increased. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Since the beginning of the last century, energy affairs have always been taken into global consideration due to their effects on economies, policies, security and the environment. Fossil fuels have been the first recourse for global energy supply needs (80% of total energy consumption); nonetheless, owing to the production of greenhouse gases, they are gradually being replaced with renewable energy resources. In addition, renewable energy resources are perpetual, unlike fossil fuels, which may be exhausted in less than one century. From 2005 to 2010 (coinciding with Iran's fourth development program), renewable energy resources enjoyed a double-digit global growth rate as a result of environmentally friendly perception and a reduction in equipment price. Some policies and strategies were globally adopted to support renewable energy resources (Feed-In-Tariff, subsidies, etc.). Iran began utilizing renewable resources from the early 1990s and set targets and policies for renewable energy resource utilization in the fourth development program. However, Iran's trend has not aligned with global trends, and it appears that its enormous fossil fuel reserves overshadow the growth of renewable energy resources in the country. In this paper, the status, achievements and policies of Iran during the fourth development program will be discussed and compared with global trends. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Garden waste biomass is a potentially underutilized renewable biofuel feedstock, which is increasing dramatically with rapid urbanization worldwide. China has experienced fast-paced urbanization over the past three decades: the settlement area has increased at a rate of 6.1% annually, with greenspace increasing by 12.7% annually from 1996 to 2008. This paper provides a synthesis of literature and experimental data to trace the potential of garden waste biomass for green renewable energy production in China. Our results show that the total potential biofuel produced by garden waste biomass was estimated at 260 petajoules (PJ), accounting for 20.7% of China's urban residential electricity consumption, or 12.6% of China's transport gasoline demand in 2008. Thus the use of garden waste biomass for energy production will contribute to the construction of low-carbon cities. However, there are still many difficulties—the main challenges are how to quantify the available garden waste biomass accurately, and technical and financial issues with the exploitation of garden waste biomass for energy production. Finally, we provide several practical suggestions for the future development of garden waste biomass for energy production. The use of garden waste for energy production in urban areas could be a win–win approach for mitigating both the burden of disposed costs and the energy crisis. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: China is facing a number of challenges such as electricity supply shortages, excessive consumption of fossil fuels and environmental pollution. As a renewable energy, wind power plays a vital role in mitigating these issues. With its unique geographical location and rich resources, China has produced a wind power industry that has achieved rapid growth. However, the complex Chinese market environment presents significant challenges to the industry. This research has adopted a strength, weakness, opportunity and threat analysis approach to examine both the internal and external factors that affect the competitiveness of the wind power industry in China. An extensive and critical review of a wide range of literature (including academic papers, industry reports, statistical data, relevant regulations and policy documents) was conducted. As a result, 19 factors were identified. These factors form part of an integrated framework that provides a useful tool for both policy makers and industry to gain a better understanding of what affects the sustainable development of the wind power industry in China. The results also provide a useful reference for foreign firms that intend to explore the Chinese wind power market. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Biomass is a renewable energy resource; however, its exploitation raises concerns about its ability to sustain the growing demand and its negative impacts on the environment, particularly in developing countries. These concerns are more prominent on the African continent where high population growth rates is leading to high rates of deforestation due to expansion of agricultural land and increased demand for bioenergy. Use of traditional and inefficient bioenergy technologies and appliances also exacerbate the problem. This paper presents a review of the efforts and progress made by different organisations in promoting improved bioenergy technologies in Uganda. The study was based on an extensive review of available literature on improved bioenergy technologies introduced in the country. It was found that there is high level of wastage of biomass resources since an estimated 72.7% of the population use traditional cooking stoves with efficiency estimated to be less than 10%. Inefficient cooking stoves are also blamed for indoor air pollution and respiratory illness reported amongst its users. Modern bioenergy technologies such as biomass gasification, cogeneration, biogas generation, biomass densification, and energy-efficient cooking stoves have been introduced in the country but have certainly not been widely disseminated. The country should pursue policies that will accelerate proliferation of more efficient bioenergy technologies in order to reduce the negative environmental impacts of bioenergy utilisation and to ensure sustainability of biomass supplies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The aim of the article is to develop technique for climate change mitigation policies assessment based on priorities of sustainable energy development. There is a close relationship between energy policies and tools aiming at sustainable energy development targets, i.e. promotion of renewable energy sources and energy efficiency measures and climate change mitigation tools. Therefore ranking of climate change mitigation tools based on their impact sustainable energy development targets is necessary seeking to ensure harmonization of policies and their synergy effect. The main tasks of the article are: (i) to define EU sustainable energy development targets, (ii) to analyze EU energy and climate change mitigation policies and their interactions, (iii) to propose a multi-criteria framework for climate change mitigation policies assessment and ranking, and (iv) to apply multi-criteria decision making methodology for climate change mitigation policies ranking in Lithuania. The main findings of paper are related with proposed technique for climate change mitigation policies assessment and application of this technique for ranking of climate change mitigation policies in Lithuania. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Gansu province is relatively less developed in economy, whereas abundant in Renewable Energy Sources (RES). It has been counting on heavy industry for a long time and highly dependent on fossil fuels, causing serious pollutions. Meanwhile, its own power demand is insufficient, thus its RES-generated electricity must be out-delivered. After the Renewable Energy Law (REL) took effect in 2006, RES development is booming in this area, bringing about a series of problems as well. This paper aims to present the current status, future potentials and challenges in Gansu by carrying out a detailed review of relevant studies, along with surveys on the wind and solar developers. Particularly, Gansu is a typical province in terms of RES development in Northwest China. It can be concluded that the RES development in this district is policy-driven to avoid risks in technology cost efficiency, grid co-development and so on. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The interest in increasing the participation of renewable energy sources (RES) in energy production arises with increasing population and growing demands for energy production and consumption, as well as the fact of the limited fossil fuels reserves. RES in the energy balance of any country has their share of energy, socio-economic and environmental benefits. Investment in energy sector in the RES domain enables Vojvodina Province to reduce energy dependence on the fossil fuel market. From the total RES potential in Vojvodina Province that is 1293ktoe/year, around 1.7% is located in existing geothermal sources. There are 73 drills with a total capacity of 72.6MW from which 65 drills are tested positive. Currently, 15 wells are in production, with a total power of 17.7MW. There are 27 drills that have never been in production and which are perspective, with a total power of 42.8MW. The aim of this paper is to perform data analysis of direct geothermal energy utilization according to the water temperature and geothermal fluid flow. According to the results of the analysis recommendations for geothermal energy utilization are given within certain sectors: agriculture (aquaculture and greenhouses), heating of the facilities and pools, industrial applications and balneology. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Korea relies on imported fossil fuels to meet its energy consumption demands. As such, there is a need to investigate alternative energy resources such as renewable energy. In this paper, assessments of the potential of various ocean renewable energy resources in the sea around Korea; potential sources of energy including wave energy, tidal energy, tidal current energy and ocean thermal energy. Tidal energy and tidal current energy are likely to play an important role in meeting the future energy needs of Korea, whereas the potentials of wave energy and ocean thermal energy for the same are relatively low. The level of technical development and the renewable energy market in Korea is currently in an early stage. The government will have to be more aggressive in the promotion of renewable energy to achieve sustainable development in Korea. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: For the last two decades, economic development in Reunion Island has led to major structural changes. The latter have been characterized by an increase in energy demand per person. This demand is mostly related to a high population growth (1.55% per year). Reunion currently has 833,000 inhabitants. The population will rise to 1 million in 2030. Like most ultraperipheral regions of the European Union, Reunion is heavily dependent on imported fossil fuels for its energy production. The total primary energy consumption amounted to 1352ktep in 2009 and 87.1% is imported energy. The development of various renewable energies such as solar energy, biomass, ocean energy, etc. is thus of priority concern to aim to achieve energetic independence. Just like other French overseas territories, Reunion policies have widely invested in Renewable Energy Sources (RES) since 2000. This paper aims at presenting the current status, the major achievements of policies and the future objectives in the deployment of renewable energy programmes. The perspective of a net zero energy island versus the pressure of the population is analysed. The barriers to penetration of RES in a small-scale territory are also discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This review paper presents an appraisal of renewable energy RE options in Egypt. An appraisal review of different REs is presented. The study shows that electric energy produced from REs in Egypt are very poor compared with other energy sources. The utilization of the renewable energies can also be a good opportunity to fight the desertification and dryness in Egypt which is about 60% of Egypt territory. The rapid growth of energy production and consumption is strongly affecting and being affected by the Egyptian economy in many aspects. It is evident that energy will continue to play an important role in the development of Egypt''s economy in coming years. The total installed electricity generating capacity had reached around 22025MW with a generating capacity reached 22605MW at the end of 2007. Hydropower and coal has no significant potential increase. During the period 1981/82–2004/05 electricity generation has increased by 500% from nearly 22TWh for the year 1981/1982 to 108.4TWh in the year 2004/2005 at an average annual growth rate of 6.9%. Consequently, oil and gas consumed by the electricity sector has jumped during the same period from around 3.7 MTOE to nearly 21 MTOE. The planned installed capacity for the year 2011/2012 is 28813MW and the required fuel (oil and gas) for the electricity sector is estimated to reach about 29 MTOE by the same year. The renewable energy strategy targets to supply 3% of the electricity production from renewable resources by the year 2010. Electrical Coverage Electrical energy has been provided for around 99.3% of Egypt''s population, representing a positive sign for the welfare of the Egyptian citizen due to electricity relation to all development components in all walks of life. The article discusses perspectives of wind energy in Egypt with projections to generate ∼ 3.5GWe by 2022, representing ∼9% of the total installed power at that time (40.2GW). Total renewables (hydro+wind+solar) are expected to provide ∼7.4GWe by 2022 representing ∼ 19% of the total installed power. Such a share would reduce dependence on depleting oil and gas resources, and hence improve country''s sustainable development. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Nowadays and in the coming years, increased attention is being given to the tidal current energy development all over the world. China is a country endowed with abundant tidal current energy resources. In this paper, the distribution of tidal current energy in China was presented. Policies and current status of usage and technology development of tidal current power generation in China were introduced. Meanwhile, special focus was given to the research programs being carried out and the achievements made. Finally, existing challenges were addressed and the future perspectives of tidal current energy development in China were provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper aims to present a review on Malaysia''s national energy developments by looking at various angles in terms of renewable energy and energy efficiency. Energy demand and consumption by sectors are presented as well as the fuel mix in electricity generation. Key energy policies implemented from the incorporation of Malaysia''s national oil company, Petronas in 1974 until the National Green Technology Policy 2009 and a future policy will be addressed. The roles of key players as well as important agencies in energy development are briefly presented. Key programmes in energy development such as Malaysian Industrial Energy Efficiency Improvement Project, Small Renewable Energy Power Programme and Building Energy Efficiency Programme are discussed as well as successful initiatives from the programmes. Malaysia''s international involvements towards reduction of greenhouse gas emissions and carbon emissions especially Montreal Protocol and Kyoto Protocol are highlighted. As a conclusion, Malaysia is aware of its role in formulating its national energy development policies, sensitive towards the country''s development towards the environment and utilization of energy resources as well as conscientious and responsive towards the call for sustainable development in promoting renewable energy and energy efficiency. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Energy is essential to the way we live. Whether it is in the form of oil, gasoline or electricity, a country''s prosperity and welfare depends on having access to reliable and secure supplies of energy at affordable prices. However, it is also one of the benefits taken for granted by many people, knowing little about the impact of electricity on their lives. Having dependent mainly on oil and gas for half a century, Malaysia has started to realize the importance to adopt renewable energy in the energy mix and continuously reviewed its energy policy to ensure sustainable energy supply and security. This paper examines and discusses the intricacy of the existing and new energy policies, issues and challenges in Malaysia. The overall approach in addressing the energy issues and challenges will continue to focus on adequacy, quality, security and sustainability of both non-renewable and renewable energy supply in the country''s development and the promotion and implementation of its energy efficiency programs. The recently launched National Green Technology Policy is also discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The Autonomous Province of Vojvodina is an Autonomous Province in Serbia, containing about 27% of its total population according to the 2002 Census. Contribution of renewable energy sources in total energy consumption of Vojvodina contemporary amounts to less than 1%, apropos 280GWh/year. By combining of methods of introduction of new and renewable sources, systematic application of methods for increasing of energetic efficacy, as well as of introduction of the new technologies, percentage of contribution of the non-conventional energy sources in Vojvodina could be increased to as much as 20%. This paper presents the potential of development of bioethanol production in Vojvodina. Production of bioethanol on small farms can be successfully applied for processing of only 30kg of corn per day, with obtaining of crude ethanol in the so-called “brandy ladle” and use of lygnocellulosic agricultural wastes as an energy source. In a case of construction of a larger number of such plants, the only possible solution is seen in the principle of construction of the so-called “satellite plants”, which will on small farm produce crude ethanol, with obtaining and consumption of stillage for animal feeding, and consumption of agricultural wastes as energetic fuels. If stillage is to be used as feed in wet feeding, it is estimated that, because of restrictions established by the magnitude of animal farm, the upper limit of capacity of such enterprises that process is at some 10–15tons of corn per day, and production of 3000–3500hL of absolute ethanol per day. In such a case, for animal feeding necessary is to have herd with 1300–1700 of milking cows or 5000–25,000 heads of sheep and/or pigs. Technological model of separate grain processing ad bioethanol production from dextrose hydrolysates of starch is interesting for countries possessing plants for bioethanol production from molasses and plants for cereals processing into starch and dextrose hydrolysates of starch. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: China has the abundant agro-residue resources, producing more than 630 million tons of agro-residues in 2006, and amounting to about 20% of total energy consumption in rural areas. Efficient utilization of enormous agro-residues resource is crucial for providing bioenergy, releasing risk of environmental pollution, and increasing farmers’ income. The paper presented the feasibility of densified solid biofuels technology for utilizing agro-residues in China. The output and distribution of agro-residues in recent 10 years, the R&D of briquetting technology, and the market of densified solid biofuels from agro-residues in China have been analyzed. The result indicated that the abundant agro-residue resources can provide the economical and sustainable raw material for densified solid biofuels development in China. The R&D of briquetting technology at present can strongly support the large scale production of densified solid biofuels. With continued improvement and cost reduction of briquetting technology, along with the support of nation energy policy on biomass energy, the market of densified solid biofuels from agro-residues in China will be more fully deployed. Based on the above mentioned key factors, development of densified solid biofuels from agro-residues in China will be promising and feasible. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Nepal, one of the least developed countries, is characterized by very low per capita energy consumption. Because of a lack of other commercial sources of energy, the country relies heavily on traditional fuel source, especially firewood. In order to solve the energy problem in rural areas, the country initiated production and distribution of several renewable energy technologies. Among several technologies, biogas has been proved to be viable and emerged as a promising technology. It has been one of the most successful models for the production of clean, environmental friendly, cost effective source of energy and has multiple benefits. In this paper we present the current state and discuss benefits of the biogas technology in Nepal. Improved health, increased crop productivity, saved time for women are some of the major benefits to the users. It provides economic benefit to the country through reduced deforestation and carbon trading. In addition, by reducing green house gas emission, the technology helps in mitigating global warming and climate change. Thus biogas is a renewable, sustainable and clean source of energy that provides multiple benefits; locally and globally. With some exception, cattle dung has been used primarily as an input and the technology is limited to households only. More systematic and comprehensive study supported by research and development is required to use other degradable waste such as municipal waste to produce biogas on a large scale. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]