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Countries worldwide have set national targets for energy production from renewable sources. Yet, while many governments are committed to more renewable energy, obtaining permission to site installations is becoming increasingly difficult. With large tracts of land for renewables becoming intensely contested, countries seeking to meet their renewables targets are directing attention also towards tapping the potential in the urban environment through smaller-scale facilities. These entail other challenges, and countries are seeking ways to overcome them. The focus of this paper is on one, still evolving, type of renewable energy technology: small-scale wind turbines (SSWT). The paper presents a review of current but limited international academic knowledge on the land-regulation aspects of siting SSWT in countries that already have experience with such installations, including the USA, UK and New Zealand. The paper also reports on a comparative analysis of the land-related regulations and practices in two selected Mediterranean jurisdictions – Spain (Catalonia) and Israel. The approach of this study is exploratory, relying on analysis of legal and policy documents complemented by field work through in-depth interviews with key-stakeholders in both jurisdictions. The overall aim of this study is to examine different approaches of planning systems to new technologies. The findings show that despite their shared objective factors, the two jurisdictions have adopted almost opposite approach to regulating SSWTs. The findings, therefore, suggest that the incorporation of an unknown technology within the city requires a change of mindset both among the officials and among the city residents. A more effective regulatory framework might therefore entails a combination of strategic thinking, an experimental approach and the capacity to learn from cross-national comparative experiences. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to review the literature focused on the energy/electricity-growth nexus, highlighting how the focus has shifted from aggregated energy/electricity consumption towards specific energy sources. Moreover, it aims to shed light on the relationships between different energy/electricity sources and economic growth. Empirically, the paper focuses on the analysis of interactions between electricity generation in Spain under both the Special Regime ( SR ) and the Ordinary Regime ( OR ), and their relationship with economic activity. Data for Spain is studied for a time span from January 2003 to January 2016. The Toda-Yamamoto causality test is carried out to check for causality relationships. Additionally, both short- and long-run effects are assessed by using the ARDL bounds test approach. Overall, the results reveal high internal consistency when comparing the ARDL results with the causality analysis. The substitution effect was detected between OR and SR. However, the negative effect of the SR on economic activity deserves special attention by energy policymakers. This paper argues that the main challenge of renewable sources for policymakers is their cost-effectiveness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The transportation sector is characterized by a high consumption of fossil fuels and a strong environmental impact. Promoting electric vehicles is an alternative to reduce and limit them move towards the sustainability of the automobile sector. In a short period of time, world car manufacturers have built, marketed and sold a million electric vehicles, and a million drivers got used to these new low carbon advanced technologies. Comparatively, this figure represents approximately the average annual sales of conventional vehicles in Spain. The main problem is the battery autonomy, since its maximum range does not exceed 250 km, a restriction that limits the trip. Spain belongs to the group of countries which have longest trip average around 80 km. Then the problem is how to understand electric mobility, for that the types and modes of charging, the types of electric vehicles, and the available charging systems all interact with one another in the charging systems for electric vehicles, which will be specifically analysed. Alternative charging methods are also presented, and the agents involved in the charging process in accordance with applicable regulations are identified. The objective of this article is to analyse the charging of electric vehicles in Spain and to assess the current situation to be able to propose potential improvements or implementation strategies. This paper determines that it is necessary to develop public policies for a structured implementation of charging stations in public places and in common-use areas within large shared spaces, such as parking areas and residential areas in order to improve electric mobility in Spain. This paper also illustrates the need to legislate standards for charging electric vehicles to maximize their implementation in Spain, with the goal of implementing electric vehicles on a larger scale and ultimately allowing society to benefit from the advantages of this technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the context of the European Green Deal and the Recovery Plan for Europe, CSP can play its role, by providing dispatchable and flexible energy when other renewable technologies cannot. The aim of this paper is to identify the potential socioeconomic, social and environmental impacts associated to the future deployment of CSP projects in Spain, taking into account the global value chain. Based on an extended multiregional input-output model developed by the authors, this paper identifies the country and sector-origin of nine sustainability indicators for the two dominant CSP technologies (parabolic trough and central receiver). The research considers the deployment of a 200 MW CSP power plant in Spain to compare the sustainability impacts of these two technologies under three different scenarios regarding the country-origin of the main components. The results show that central receivers have more positive economic impacts, both in terms of value added and employment creation, and lower negative environmental and social impacts than the parabolic trough alternative. The economic and environmental impacts of the CSP deployed in Spain depend on the origin of components, with the highest negative environmental impacts occurring when the components come from China and the lowest when they come from Germany. The same occurs for the social impacts and supply risks, which are lower when Germany supplies the main components. The scenario in which Spain supplies all the components performs better than the Chinese supply scenario in terms of social risks, whereas no major differences among them were found on supply risks. • CSP deployment in Spain will have socioeconomic benefits, mostly retained in Europe. • CSP electricity has low silver extraction and carbon and water footprints compared to other energy sources. • Chinese penetration in the European CSP market worsens the sustainability of plants. • The best sustainability performance occurs in the European cooperative scenario. • There are tradeoffs between the sustainability impacts driven by the CSP investments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

An extended version of the IPAT model and the ‘Kaya identity’ is used to assess the contribution of drivers of CO 2 emissions for the 1995–2009 period. The paper carries out a multisector analysis based on the Log-Mean Divisia Index Method (LMDI I). The decomposition factors used are the Carbon Intensity factor (CI), the Energy Intensity factor (EI), the structural composition of Spain׳s economy (Economy Structure, ES), the Economic Activity factor (EA) and Population (P), respectively. Data came from the World Input–Output Database (WIOD) and determined the period under consideration. The paper focuses on the 35 productive sectors included in the WIOD. Major findings show that RES acted in detriment to the drivers of CO 2 emissions. This may be stated for the last few years under consideration. The positive trend for the share of RES in Spain׳s energy matrix, together with the negative tendency in the use of fossil fuels, leads us to be optimistic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper presents a detailed analysis of the dynamics and control of air turbines and electrical generators in oscillating-water-columns (OWCs). The aim is to explain the performance of an OWC device based on the physical behaviour of each system component. The Mutriku wave power plant was chosen as the test case. The power plant is a breakwater located in the Bay of Biscay, in Basque Country, Spain. The contributions of the work are: i) development of a hydrodynamic model of the power plant in the frequency domain; ii) implementation of a non-linear time-domain wave-to-wire model; iii) real-valued implementation of the Prony method for the computation of the wave-radiation force; iv) a detailed generator model based on experimental data to assess the influence of the generator efficiency on the power take-off performance; v) a critical performance comparison of the Wells and biradial turbines; vi) a sensitivity analysis of the control parameters of the turbine/generator set; and vii) an explanation of the comparative performance of both turbines based on statistical data. The turbine performance curves were taken from developers' published experimental data. The results were obtained with a simplified model of the wave climate off the Mutriku test site comprising 14 sea states. • Non-linear time-domain wave-to-wire model of the Mutriku OWC-breakwater was developed. • Experimental electrical generator efficiency was mapped versus rotational speed and shaft torque. • The performances of Wells and biradial turbines were compared based on statistical data. • A sensitivity analysis of the control parameters of the turbine/generator sets was performed. • The biradial turbine was found to be more efficient and less sensitive to the control parameters. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A 30 kW fixed-guide-vanes biradial turbine-generator set was designed by Instituto Superior Técnico (IST) and manufactured by Kymaner, within the framework of the H2020 European project OPERA, for open sea testing at the Mutriku breakwater oscillating water column (OWC) power plant and at the IDOM MARMOK-A-5 OWC spar-buoy, deployed at BiMEP, Basque Country, Spain. The paper reports the design and construction of the prototype, and its dry testing at IST, in a variable-flow test rig, simulating the oscillating flow induced by irregular waves. Results show that the turbine exhibits a peak efficiency of 70% under steady-state conditions and an average efficiency of 56% for the control laws tested. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper contributes a critical view of the development of grid-connected photovoltaic systems (GCPVS) in Spain during the period 1998–2008 by looking into the different actions that were intended to promote this technology. The Spanish photovoltaic (PV) sector has undergone bullish development in the recent years, but its underlying factors still lack systematic identification and analysis. Accordingly, this paper collects and presents detailed data for describing this evolution. It also makes a special case of the particular promotion of PV systems on roof and goes further to analyze how these actions have affected GCPVS evolution as well as the magnitude of their impact on its performance. The exponential growth of installed cumulative PV power at the end of this period, which largely exceeded the target set for 2008, is canvassed by building an analogy with feedback control systems. In this approach, market response or the PV power attained is considered as the system output, while the different regulation changes are regarded as control actions aimed at enabling GCPVS to hit the energy target. Such an analysis allows determining the most significant delays and control actions that explain the system''s performance. Hence, this study suggests an alternative framework to support the formulation and assessment of energy policy as it puts the emphasis not only on the evolution of the system per se but rather on the performance of the system against the energy target. In this regard, it might contribute to enhance the promotion mechanisms of green technologies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The use of biomass resources for power generation offers numerous benefits of interest for political decision-makers: fuel security, rural and industrial development, ecological benefits. In Spain, policy instruments have been used since 1980 to stimulate biomass power generation. However, the diffusion outcome by 2007 was very disappointing: only 525MW. This paper argues that two factors lie at the core of this: the conceptualization of biomass resources by political decision-makers in the instruments used, and the desire that policy instruments be in line with market liberalization principles. These generated a persistent economic obstacle for biomass power generation, and impeded the development of markets for the supply of biomass resources. The policy learning regarding the heterogeneity of biomass resources, and the investors’ expectations on risks, profitability and resource markets was very slow among political decision-makers. The paper contributes to the understanding of diffusion outcomes by proposing to analyse diffusion by means of five indicators: types of resources, technologies, developers, motivations to invest and project sizes. Besides, the paper shows the usefulness of investigating policy instruments in terms of their risk and profitability characteristics. This enables a better understanding of the diffusion patterns and outcomes. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper applies an evolutionary economics framework to analyse the factors leading to lock-out of renewable energy technologies (RETs). The cases of wind and solar photovoltaics (PV) in Spain are empirically analysed. The paper shows that a wide array of interrrelated factors (technoeconomic characteristics of technology components, system-level infrastructure and institutional factors) can create both barriers to the wide diffusion of RETs and can also be drivers that foster an escape from a lock-in situation. Based on this analysis, the paper suggests several policy measures which may help to overcome the lock-out of promising renewable energy technologies. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper evaluates the net effect of renewable energy policy in Spain from 2002 to 2017 and calculates its cost-effectiveness in terms of CO 2 emission reductions in the production of electricity. Our conclusions indicate that although the phasing out of Feed-in Tariffs reduced the regulatory costs, it also limited renewable participation in the electricity market, leading to an increased electricity price and higher emissions. According to our results, the joint effect of (i) the value of avoided emissions due to renewable energy participation and (ii) the merit order effect was able to compensate for the regulatory costs (subsidies) up until 2010, while the sign of the net effect was reversed from 2011 to 2017. Finally, we find that the economic implications of emission reductions are highly dependent on how the social cost of carbon is measured. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spain exemplifies the development of renewable energy in general and photovoltaic solar energy in particular, influenced to a major extent by public regulation. Without suitable caution regarding the approaching world crisis, the regulatory framework gave rise to the fact that Spain would rank second worldwide in 2008 in terms of installed photovoltaic (PV) solar energy. Yet a serious financial and economic crisis still in its infancy started to lead to readjustments, while the new regulatory framework put a stop to the construction of new PV plants. Many companies and investors either went bankrupt or saw their performance levels dwindle. Although the academic literature has analyzed some general aspects related to this boom-and-bust of the Spanish photovoltaic solar sector, no studies have been carried out on a company level. In order to fill this void, this paper analyses the economic and financial performance of Spanish companies involved in photovoltaic solar energy production over the period 2006–2015. The results, based on a longitudinal population sample of around 5469 companies from the sector, show the economic hardships they have experienced, especially smaller enterprises. An improvement in the most recent situation is also noted. The international implications of the Spanish case for scholars, policy makers, investors and other stakeholders worldwide, as well as avenues for further research, are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Between 2004 and 2013, Spain applied a series of regulations that prompted a rapid expansion of the CSP sector. Most of this capacity was based on a proven technology that involved limited technical and financial risks (50 MWe, parabolic trough, synthetic HTF, 7.5 h thermal energy storage and wet cooling). This paper provides an introduction to CSP technology and a detailed review of these regulatory frameworks. This information has been used to evaluate the economic viability of a CSP plant representative of those deployed in Spain. The results evidence the limited competitiveness of this form of CSP, which is attributable not only to its elevated capital costs but also to high fixed operating costs per unit of output and limited revenues from power sales. Although generation capacity may be increased through hybridization with NG, this is also a loss making activity due to the limited efficiency of single cycle technology. With exceptions, the policy strategy followed in Spain had limited success at promoting technology advances with potential to achieve higher generation capacity, improved revenues, reduced costs and increased dispatchability. This form of CSP may still be attractive in isolated locations, where real power generation costs may be significantly higher. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To determine temperature losses in a photovoltaic (PV) installation, the operating temperature of the cells in the PV panels must be known. This temperature cannot be directly measured because the cells are not accessible from the outside, as they are inside the panels, with other layers of material surrounding them. Therefore, the parameter to which direct access exists by means of measuring is the temperature of the outer surfaces of the modules. However, the cell junction temperatures are typically 1–3 °C higher than the temperature measured on the module's rear surface, depending on the module construction. Some methods exist for determining the cell temperature, including measuring the open-circuit voltage of the panels, but because this is difficult to do with an on-site PV installation, normally this temperature is determined by using models. Numerous models appear in the literature for determining the cell temperature, so in this paper, a recompilation of twenty models is taken into account for determining the temperature and miscellaneous losses of a PV installation located in South Spain in a year’s time. These models have different relations between the value of the cell temperature and some environmental parameters, considering or not the value of the wind speed and the form in which the panels are installed. A maximum difference in annual temperature losses found using the twenty models was 90.4 h/year. This non-negligible quantity indicates the importance of an appropriate choice of model and the correct conditions for applying it to make a precise estimation of the capture temperature losses. Moreover, it would be interesting to reach an agreement on the best procedure for determining this type of losses, especially for correctly performing comparisons of these losses in different PV plants in operation, which can reach very significant values in locations with high temperature registers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Spain has shifted from a predominant position in the worldwide market according to the accumulated PV power installed, to an irrelevant level where it is even no longer present at the PV market survey; but not always this has been the situation. The Spanish Government have promoted renewable energy policies which have turned very rapidly from a promising scenario, especially in the 2004–2008 period, into an unstable situation not only for future investors in this technology, but also for current owners that have been witnesses of a decrease in their profitability expectations. Furthermore, although the retroactive measures that have been applied to the owners of these PV plants could be, paraphrasing the Government words, “reasonable profitable”, the problem arises when they may be unable to afford the annual liquid assets of the funding mechanism chosen for their PV investments. Therefore, in a scenario where in the last decade more than 12 laws and Royal Decrees have been promulgated in Spain, it is interesting to review the effects in the profitability and cost parameters that this legislation has had on the PV market, on the owners and also on prospective investors. In this paper a complete economic profitability and cost analysis based on the NPV, IRR and LCOE has been undertaken for the case of Spain since 1998, correlating it to the evolution of the legislative framework applicable to the photovoltaic technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Variable renewable technologies are characterized by a large degree of intermittency due to their natural variability, creating a need for exploiting a range of sources. In this context, the use of energy storage systems is often proposed. There are different ways to store and use the overproduced electricity from these technologies. This paper aims to evaluate the global warming emissions savings obtained from storing the surplus electricity from the variable renewable technologies in the Spanish market and later using it in different end use applications, both for the present day and the 2030 time horizon. First, a review of the life cycle assessments of different energy storage technologies published in the scientific literature is performed. Then, selected values from this review, adapted to the emission intensity of variable renewable electricity stored in Spain, are used to compute GHG savings from storing and using this electricity for different end uses. Results show that the highest benefits in terms of GHG emissions avoidance would be obtained in transport applications and in the power sector. However, as the electricity mix becomes decarbonized, the use of batteries behind the meter would lead to no GHG emissions avoidance. Using electricity to produce heat leads to low GHG emission avoidance benefits that will reduce over time. Benefits will improve in time for the chemical sector, as there are few alternatives to decarbonize this sector. A specific storage strategy must be formulated for each particular case. • The largest benefits are obtained using the stored energy in transport applications. • Using the stored energy in the power sector is also an option with high benefits. • The use of batteries behind the meter would have low or no benefits in the future. • Using electricity to produce heat leads to low GHG emission avoidance benefits. • A specific storage strategy must be formulated for each particular case. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Offshore wind energy generation has experienced an important growth in the last five years, reaching currently an installed capacity of almost 8000 MW. The most important references in this type of technology are Denmark, Holland, Sweden, Germany and United Kingdom. In Spain, previsions for technology, have been set at around 750 MW of installed power during the period 2011–2020. However, Spanish coastal features, social opposition to installations near the coast and lack of a stable regulatory environment guaranteeing the investments are factors which are restraining the development of this technology. This paper presents a brief review of the state of the art of offshore wind technology and it describes the most frequently used types of turbines, transmission systems and support structures in Europe. It also presents the current situation and the expected growth of offshore wind power facilities, introducing the characteristics of the operational – and under construction – windfarms. Finally, it analyses particular problems and solutions for its development in Spain which can be extrapolated to countries with similar circumstances. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper has two main aims: to offer an overview of Spain׳s strategy for fulfilling its Kyoto commitments and to analyze the main drivers that have influenced the recent trend in its greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with special emphasis on the Spanish power sector. First, the use of the Kyoto Flexibility Mechanisms in Spain and the role of the different subsectors of the country׳s economy in fulfilling the aforesaid commitment are explored, focusing on the sectors affected by the European Union Emission Trading Scheme (EU ETS). Then, based on the Stochastic Impacts by Regression on Population, Affluence, and Technology (STIRPAT) model and on the analysis of trends in Spain׳s primary and final energy intensity ratios, the main drivers in GHG emission trends are identified, with a distinction being drawn between “strategic” and “non-strategic” drivers. The results show that the trend in the level of the economy is the main “non-strategic” driver, while increased penetration of renewable energies in the Spanish power mix and improvements in final energy efficiency are the main “new-strategic” drivers which explain the downward trend observed in GHG emissions from 2006 onwards. However, changes in legislation introduced in 2012 are negatively affecting the new renewable installed power generation capacity: they seem to mean a step backward in the future Spanish strategy to reduce or limit GHG emissions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sustainable development, in its wider sense, i.e., economic, social and environmental, has emerged as one of the key challenges for humankind in the 21st century. Solar photovoltaic (PV) emerges as a key technology to meet not only the climate targets but also those related to social progress and economic growth. This paper's main objective is to capture the momentum and potentialities of the Spanish Solar PV sector using a Triple Bottom Line (TBL) analysis from a broad economic, social and environmental footprint perspective in an MRIO context in 2016. Regarding the economic impact, we find that the Spanish Solar PV sector accounts for 0.19% and 0.31% of GDP in direct and in total terms, respectively; besides, 60% of indirect GDP is created within Spanish economy and 40% is generated abroad, while 86% of induced GDP is generated within domestic economy. By activity, PV manufactures is the only one to generate most of its indirect GDP abroad (68%). In social terms, Solar PV activities are responsible for 5904 direct jobs and 18,377 in total in Spain in 2016, and the most important activity is energy production and distribution (50.2% of total generated employment). In environmental terms, the footprint of the whole Solar PV industry accounts for only 734 ktCO 2 , which helps to avoid a great volume of direct emissions in electricity generation, with more than 69% generated beyond Spain's borders. With regard to the potentialities of the Spanish Solar PV sector, and given the forecasted growing deployment of Solar PV in Spain by 2030 and 2050, this industry is set to be one of the leading sectors of the Spanish sustainability transition in the near future. Current policy requires the fast deployment of Solar PV throughout the country to ensure more sustainability-friendly economic, social and environmental development. • The paper presents a comprehensive sustainability assessment of the Solar PV sector. • Solar PV Triple Bottom Line Analysis: Economic, Social and Environmental footprints. • Detailed analysis of the Spanish Solar PV sector by firm and activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

From mid-2007 to September 2008, the Spanish PV sector experienced an investment boom, which led to a ten-fold increase in solar PV deployment. The concern of the government about the large increase in the associated support costs through a feed-in tariff led to the implementation of several cost-containment regulations. These included a cap on the electricity generation being eligible for support, a grid access charge, a generation charge, a shortening of the support period and the updating of tariffs below the consumer price index. The aim of this paper is to analyze the impact of those cost-containment mechanisms on the profitability of solar PV plants in Spain. The results show that these measures have had a moderate impact on the profitability of those plants, which is still relatively high, with internal rates of return which are always above 7% in all the simulated cases. However, their impact is mediated by different features of the plant, including the levels of the initial investment (upfront costs), borrowing and operation and maintenance (O&M) costs. It is also mediated by policy variables (such as changes in the tariff-updating method and the level of the grid-connection charges) and by other variables, e.g., the interest rates of loans. The specific impact of each of the cost-containment measures has also been analyzed. Our findings show that the generation charge has the greatest impact, followed by the change in the tariff-updating mechanism, the generation cap, the shortening of the support period and the grid access charge. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper analyses and compares the merit order effects of photovoltaic and wind power on final electricity prices in the Spanish spot market and the cost of electricity tariffs. Artificial intelligence techniques are used to model the electricity auction clearing process. Several algorithms are studied before the M5P learning algorithm is finally applied to create a tree model of the spot market. Electricity tariffs for domestic consumers are also recalculated for fictional scenarios with no photovoltaic or wind power production. The conclusion is that the influence of photovoltaic and wind power is uneven. Wind power reduces final electricity prices by €9.10/MW h, generating an overall saving for the system of €364.0 million and for the average domestic consumer of €1.95 using 2012 figures; photovoltaic power reduces electricity prices by €2.18/MW h, generating an overall cost overrun for the system of €2034.1 million and for the average domestic consumer of €38.82. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At the end of January 2012, the Spanish government suspended the economic incentives for electricity generation facilities using renewable energy sources, including wind energy plants. Spain maintains a high level of energy dependence that can only be reduced by applying measures to increase energy efficiency and using massive amounts of renewable sources. In addition, the target assumed by Spain, i.e., to have at least 20% of the primary energy to be supplied by renewable sources by 2020, has not yet been reached. In Spain, wind farms, a number of which have been in commercial operation for over 15 years, offer a broad market appropriate for repowering. The use of more efficient wind turbines by means of repowering provides benefits to the electricity sector as a whole by optimizing the use of natural resources and facilitating the grid integration of the energy generated. This paper analyses existing wind farms to quantify and characterize the market suitable for repowering. We discuss whether repowering is a valid alternative from the point of view of feasibility to enable the continuation of the integration of wind energy in the Spanish energy mix and whether this feasibility is sufficient when the energy generated is charged at the electricity market price in terms of grid parity. The results support that repowering is a profitable alternative and is often even better than the construction of new wind farms under certain conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The cut-off of any subsidy or feed-in tariff that incentives the installation of new renewable energy systems which are close to the grid parity, is a reality in most of the European countries, but in the recent years the grid parity has worsened because of the global economic crisis. In the case of Spain, in addition to the economic problems, the photovoltaic sector has been dramatically damaged through a changeable regulatory framework, an excessive bureaucracy and the inclusion of additional fees or possible back-up tolls that are very prejudicial for the deployment of this sector. Nowadays, the current Spanish legislation mentions the possibility of self-consumption (totally or partially) of the electricity generated by PV or any renewable energy systems but, up to the date of this work, the law that regulates the administrative, technical and economic conditions for the net-metering of the electrical energy produced within the consumer׳s network, is still under a draft stage. In this paper it is analyzed the case of the University of Jaen, where it has been identified and simulated several PV systems on the roofs and parking lots of the University Campus, and considering the current electrical tariffs (hourly defined for the case of high power and high voltage consumers), it has been done a cost and economic analysis. As a result, it has been obtained an average Levelised Cost of Energy around 0.125€kWh−1, a discount payback time of 17.5 years or less, a positive Net Present Value and a nominal Internal Rate of Return of 8.48% in the worst case. Beyond that, it has been carried out a sensitivity analysis of the factors that have more influence in the profitability of these systems, like the initial investment cost, the PV electricity yield, additional taxes and the variations in the electricity price market. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper reviews the production and consumption of traditional and renewable energy in Spain over the past two decades. It also presents an overview on the development of renewable energy, such as solar (photovoltaic and photothermal), wind, biomass, hydropower, marine and geothermal energies in Spain. A brief overview of the legislation regulating renewable energy in Spain is offered. It was shown that the installed renewable energy of 32,472MW represented 11.6% of the country׳s primary energy consumption. Furthermore, the installed renewable energy average of electric power in Spain was 0.7kW per capita and 59kW/km2. Wind energy continues to experience a good growth rate, and does not seem to be affected by regulations, which has made it the most sustainable renewable energy in Spain. Finally, an analysis of energy production and consumption, renewable and non-renewable energy by province is made. The data indicates that highly populated and industrialised provinces made more efficient use of their energy from an electrical consumption viewpoint. This uneven growth was not motivated solely by the existence or lack of renewable energy resources but by the autonomous community or province in their socio-economic context. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The wine industry is extremely vulnerable to climate change given the impact of temperature, water or soil conditions on wine production. Transformation strategies toward more sustainable models would help the industry to overcome the weak points. The present study evaluates the environmental impact of the so-called CO 2 -alcoholic fermentation processes (CO 2 -AFP) strategy, a recently developed eco-innovative strategy, which offers a new pathway toward a greener wine-making production with a 16.79% reduction of the carbon footprint considering scopes 1 (direct emissions), 2 (emissions generated directly in the production of electricity), and 3 (indirect emissions embodied in the organization's value chain). This strategy is based on a novel Carbon Dioxide Utilization approach from a biogenic CO 2 released by fermentation processes to produce a fully marketable and environmentally friendly chemical product at a global level, i.e., sodium carbonate. This paper presents the strategy development corresponding to a real case: a medium-size winery and distillery in Spain, where the " CO 2 -AFP Strategy " has been successfully tested and scaled-up. Detailed and tested carbon capture and utilization schemes are used to evaluate the overall carbon footprint balance (carbon calculation, capture potential, and carbon balance) via an improved hybrid multiregional input-output-lifecycle assessment model (MRIO-LCA). The benefits go beyond the reduction of carbon footprint in the fermentation industry. The application of the " CO 2 -AFP Strategy " implies a revolution, in terms of Circular Economy, in the sodium carbonate industry, as the symbiotic process between the different stages of the value chain will allow downstream carbon footprint reductions, facilitating a greener sodium carbonate production. • The AFP-Strategy proposes a method for carbon capture from alcoholic fermentation. • A real-case cost-effective carbon capture and utilization process is assessed. • The corporate carbon footprint is estimated through a tiered hybrid method. • Multiregional Input-Output and Life-cycle Assessment techniques are combined. • The hybrid model provide a footprint detailed into three scopes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Access to reliable solar radiation data is of paramount importance for the sustainable development of mankind. However, solar radiation measurements are available in few meteorological stations, so models are used to estimate global solar radiation from other climate variables. This paper presents a compilation of 165 global solar radiation models that is representative of the progress over the last 100 years. The models were classified according to the type of variables used and a large majority of dimensionally non-homogeneous equations were identified. Furthermore, it was observed that comparisons between various models studied in different regions over recent decades were occasionally contradictory, so that no single existing model seems to have definitively outperformed the others. In this context, homogeneity analysis provides a procedure to improve the quality of models by reducing the presence of variables implicit in numerical coefficients, which deserves to be valued as a methodological tool. In addition, a previously introduced temperature-based homogeneous model was updated using recent experimental data and revising the functional form of the local geographic factor dependent on elevation and distance to the sea. Using site-calibrated coefficients, the modified model provides accurate results at 22 meteorological stations in northern Spain, located over a distance of about 1000 km. Using a general equation, acceptable predictions are obtained for the 21 stations with the highest climatic similarity. • Homogeneity analyses are performed on 165 radiation models for the first time. • Implicit variables in coefficients limit model validity for diverse climate zones. • Any solar radiation model based on a non-homogeneous equation can be improved. • A homogeneous temperature-based model is valid at Spanish stations 1000 km apart. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper aims to estimate the economic impacts of increasing the production capacity of the installed biofuel plants in Andalusia (southern Spain). A computable general equilibrium (CGE) approach is used to calculate the changes in the economic sectors' activity, in employment as well as in GDP and other macroeconomic variables relevant to biofuel plants in Andalusia under two distinct scenarios (i) based on an operating biodiesel plant (with 90ktoe/year of installed capacity); (ii) upgrading to 2174ktoe by 2013 in compliance with the regional ‘Plan Andaluz de Sostenibilidad Energética (PASENER) 2007–2013'. Results show that compliance with the PASENER goal would increase the activity level of the economic sectors considered by 3.04%, the total induced employment generated would reach 167,975 equivalent full-time jobs lasting one year and the GDP would increase by 9.82%. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper is based on the combination of a Geographic Information System (GIS) and tools or multi-criteria decision making (MCDM) methods in order to obtain the evaluation of the optimal placement of photovoltaic solar power plants in the area of Cartagena (Region of Murcia), in southeast Spain. The combination GIS–MCDM generates an excellent analysis tool that allows for the creation of an extensive cartographic and alphanumeric database that will later be used by multi-criteria methodologies to simplify problems to solve and promote the use of multiple criteria. In GIS two types of criteria will be reflected: constraints or restrictive criteria, and weighting criteria or factors. Constraints or restrictive criteria will make it possible to reduce the area of study by discarding those areas that prevent the implementation of renewable energy plants. These criteria will be obtained from the legislation (planning regulations, protected areas, road networks, railways, waterways, mountains, etc). Weighting criteria or factors will be those which, according to the objective to be reached, influence the ability to solve a concrete alternative. The choice of such criteria is marked by the influence presented to the overall goal; in this case they will be location, geomorphological, environmental and climatic criteria. Through the use of MCDM the criteria or factors mentioned will be weighted in order to evaluate potential sites to locate a solar plant. Analysis and calculation of the weights of these factors will be conducted using Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP). The assessment of the alternatives according to their degree of adequacy is carried out through the TOPSIS method (Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The solar updraft power plant system (SUPPS) is a novel kind of solar thermal application, which uses the fluid buoyancy of the chimney effect to achieve output power. To investigate the impact of a strong ambient crosswind on the system output power through the collector inlet and chimney outlet, numerical analysis on the performances of a SUPPS identical to the prototype in Manzanares, Spain which is exposed to the external crosswind with different velocities is carried out in this paper. A geometrical model including the SUPPS and its outside ambience is built and the mathematical models to describe the fluid flow, heat transfer and output power of the whole system are further developed. The pressure, temperature and velocity distribution of the air in the ambience and SUPPS together with the output power of the SUPPS are analyzed. The numerical simulation results reveal that ambient crosswind has influence on the performance of the SUPPS in two ways. On one hand, when the ambient crosswind is comparably weak, it will deteriorate the flow field and reduce the output power of the SUPPS. On the other hand, it may even increase the mass flow rate and output power if the crosswind is strong enough. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper provides an overview of the trends of the Spanish solar PV feed-in tariff (FIT) and its design elements, identifies some implications for the effective and cost-efficient deployment of solar PV in Spain and infers some lessons which might be useful for the implementation of support for solar PV elsewhere. Our analysis is based on a throughout revision of the relevant legislation, official data on deployment and related expenditure, informal discussions with key stakeholders and written documents. Several key design elements within FITs that should be implemented and other elements that should be avoided in order to have an effective and cost-efficient promotion of solar PV are identified. All in all, the specific design elements to be included are clearly contingent upon the preferences and priorities of policymakers. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The capacity expansion planning problem of the renewable energy industry involves decisions regarding the optimal mix of different plant types, locations where each plant should be built, and capacity expansion decisions over the planning horizon for each plant. The aim of this paper is to develop a goal programming model, based on a multi-source multi-sink network, in order to locate five renewable energy plants for electric generation in five places located in the autonomous region of Cantabria, in the north of Spain. As different types of plants can be placed in each location, the goal is to locate one plant in each place, maximizing the number of plants that are matched with comparable locations, in a way that the total deviations from goals are minimized. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Conventional energy resources, has been shown to be limited and they are producing environmental degradation. So the transition to an energy model based on the use of renewable energy is an urgent need. The energy and environmental policies are evidence of this and they are being implemented out a multitude of countries worldwide, furthermore one important element in this transition is the increased use of biomass for energy production. Agricultural residues are produced in huge quantities in all countries; most of these could be used for energy generation. This property increases the value of waste materials and reduces the environmental impacts of waste disposal. This paper analyzes the situation of biomass energy resources in Andalusia, and quantifies the pruning obtained from different crop kinds: grapevines, olives, fruit trees and poplar plantations. All this biomass is destined for energetic use in domestic heating. In addition, it could be some additional revenue for fruit producers, whereas to achieve a more sustainable bioenergetic system. We estimate the measures of the planting area of all mentioned crops in Andalusia. The main goal is to determine the amount of usable energy from the biomass. But we consider only pruning of trees. The results show that most of the biomass is originated from olive pruning. Besides the entire biomass from crops with grapevines, olives, fruit trees and growing part of poplar plantations, we could supply a large percentage of the total energy consumed for annual home heating in Andalusia (2007). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: As fossil fuels are not only a limited resource, but also contribute to global warming, a transition towards a more sustainable energy supply is urgently needed. Therefore, today''s environmental policies are largely devoted to fostering the development and implementation of renewable energy technologies. One important aspect of this transition is the increased use of biomass to generate renewable energy. Agricultural residues are produced in huge amounts worldwide, and most of this residue is composed of biomass that can be used for energy generation. Consequently, converting this residue into energy can increase the value of waste materials and reduce the environmental impact of waste disposal. This paper analyses the situation of biomass energy resources in Andalusia, an autonomous community in the south of Spain. More specifically, biomass is the renewable source which most contributes to Andalusian energy infrastructure. The residual biomass produced in the olive sector is the result of the large quantity of olive groves and olive oil manufacturers that generate byproducts with a potentially high energy content. The generation of agricultural and industrial residues from the olive sector produced in Andalusia is an important source of different types of residual biomass that are suitable for thermal and electric energy since they reduce the negative environmental effects of emissions from fossil fuels, such as the production of carbon dioxide. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Since 1998 the Spanish Government established a feed-in system where RES-E generators could choose between two alternatives: fixed feed-in tariff and premium. Nowadays, all RES-E 1 [1] RES-E: electricity from renewable energy sources. can be sold in the electricity market (getting an additional premium) except for solar photovoltaic. One important novelty established in 2007 is a cap and floor system for facilities under the premium option. The aim of this paper is to analyze and compare these two alternative options, fixed-FIT and premiums, which coexist at the same time in Spain, describe the evolution of both systems and evaluate its performance. The introduction of this support system in Spain led to very good results in terms of RES-E deployment. The main advantage of the premium option is that it is a scheme integrated in the electricity market. One disadvantage is that it can occasionally lead to overcompensation; one way to try to avoid it is to set a cap value. In order to evaluate the performance of this dual support system not only RES-E deployment has been assessed but also the policy stability, the adequacy of RES-E production to the electricity demand pattern and the changes in the investors’ behaviour. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This article addresses the public acceptance issue of renewable energies and, more specifically, the case of photovoltaic (PV) solar energy. The paper analyzes the media coverage that influences public acceptance, focusing on a specific case study: the extraordinary development of the Spanish PV sector during the period 2004–2010, a case that has gained international momentum. The work describes the intense general public debate that has been generated—a debate that may well influence Spanish public acceptance of both this and other sources of renewable energy. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The implementation of Directive 2001/77/EC on the promotion of electricity produced from renewable sources sets a target of 22.1% of electricity consumption in the EU in 2010, and establishes various mechanisms that member countries may adopt depending on their needs. This paper analyses these mechanisms, their implementation in Spain by means of RD 661/2007 and the degree of fulfilment of objectives. It concludes with an analysis of the effectiveness of the mechanisms adopted and recommendations on market design. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper presents an integrated method that assesses the socio-economic impact of establishing renewable energy on a regional scale, in particular on the creation of jobs. The method proposed is based on the collection, critical analysis and presentation of the results obtained using primary information sources considering the jobs created as the most direct measure of the socio-economic potential of renewable energy sources. Its design includes contributions extracted from a prior analysis of the existing assessment methods, to lessen the uncertainty of the job ratios often used in these types of analysis. The integrated method implemented has been applied to the autonomous community of Aragon (Spain) as a pilot case, through which the method has been tested and the indicators selected to analyse the socio-economic impact of renewable energy sources on the jobs created, the quality of the jobs and other factors related to the socio-economic development of a territory: technological development, per capita income, territorial development and human capital. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: One of the main challenges faced by mankind in the 21st century is to meet the increasing demand for energy requirements by means of a more sustainable energy supply. In countries that are net fossil fuel importers, expectation about the benefit of using alternative fuels on reducing oil imports is the primary driving force behind efforts to promote its production and use. Spain is scarce in domestic energy sources and more than 50% of the energy used is fossil fuel based. The promotion of renewable energies use is one of the principal vectors in the Spanish energy policy. Selected herbaceous crops such as Brassica carinata are currently under study as potential energy sources. Its biomass can be considered as potential feedstock to ethanol conversion by an enzymatic process due to the characteristics of its composition, rich in cellulose and hemicellulose. This paper aims to analyse the environmental performance of two ethanol-based fuel applications (E10 and E85) in a passenger car (E10 fuel: a mixture of 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline by volume; E85 fuel: a mixture of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline by volume) as well as their comparison with conventional gasoline as transport fuel. Two types of functional units are applied in this study: ethanol production oriented and travelling distance oriented functional units in order to reflect the availability or not of ethanol supply. E85 seems to be the best alternative when ethanol production based functional unit is considered in terms of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and E10 in terms of non-renewable energy resources use. Nevertheless, E85 offers the best environmental performance when travelling distance oriented functional unit is assumed in both impacts. In both functional unit perspectives, the use of ethanol-based fuels reduces the global warming and fossil fuels consumption. However, the contributions to other impact indicators (e.g. acidification, eutrophication and photochemical oxidants formation) were lower for conventional gasoline. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) procedure helps to identify the key areas in the B. carinata ethanol production life cycle where the researchers and technicians need to work to improve the environmental performance. Technological development could help in lowering both the environmental impact and the prices of the ethanol fuels. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Biofuel use seems to have certain environmental, energy and socioeconomic advantages versus fossil fuel consumption. The substitution of fossil fuels with biofuels can be a useful tool to fulfil the Spanish and European policy in relation to mitigation of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and increase the security in energy supply. The continuous increase in energy consumption, dependence on energy and high petroleum prices has motivated increasing support for renewable energy promotion. In Spain (the third ethanol producer in Europe in 2007), ethanol from lignocellulosic feedstocks could be one of the most valuable and interesting possibilities for renewable transportation fuels due to the limited competition with food production and high net reduction of GHG emissions. This study is focused on flax shives, obtained as an agricultural co-product from flax crops dedicated to fibre production for specialty paper pulp manufacture as lignocellulosic biomass to produce second generation ethanol involving the use of cellulosic technology. The life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology was used to evaluate the environmental impacts of the production and use in a flexi fuel vehicle (FFV) of ethanol blends (10 and 85% in volume of ethanol with gasoline) versus conventional gasoline, throughout their whole life cycle in order to highlight the main sources of these impacts. The system boundaries include cultivation, extraction, processing and final use of fuels. Mass and economic allocation were considered to determine the effect on the results of different allocation approaches. The results of the study show that the allocation methods are essential for outcomes and decision-making. Using ethanol as transportation fuel could present better environmental performance than conventional gasoline in terms of global warming and fossil fuel consumption according to mass allocation. However, environmental credits could be achieved in terms of acidification, fossil fuel consumption and human toxicity according to economic allocation. Contributions to other impact categories such as eutrophication and photochemical oxidants formation were lower for conventional gasoline regardless of the allocation procedure selected. Agricultural activities related to feedstock production are notable contributors to the environmental performance. Thus, high yielding varieties, reduction of tillage activities and reduction in fertilization should help to reduce these impacts. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The present paper applies and adapts the methodology of integrated assessment focus groups (IA-FGs) in order to understand and analyse the enhancing factors, as well as the constraints which drive or limit the take-off and development of sustainable forest biomass energy systems in a selected large forested area of the Mediterranean basin. Our study provides both quantitative and qualitative data from Catalonia, Northeast Spain. We provide historical trends in forest expansion; an assessment of technological, socio-economic and ecological options of forest management; and plausible scenarios of its future evolution. Results show that while the opportunities and stakes are high, in Mediterranean countries, specific socio-ecologic factors need to be taken into account if forest biomass is to contribute decisively to securing renewable sources of energy in Europe, integrating landscape planning with resource policies or mitigating climate change. Among these key factors identified are property regimes, low productivity of Mediterranean forests and weak institutional capacity. Other elements such as logistics and supply difficulties and the lack of economic profitability of forest products constitute limitations identified in the implementation of bioenergy systems. Technological solutions alone, while important, are insufficient to ensure a prominent role of Southern Europe forest biomass management in the climate, landscape and sustainability energy policy challenge. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Olive sector residues could contribute to increased use of renewable energies, especially in those areas where the olive crop is produced. This paper determines the maximum amount of electrical and thermal energy which could be obtained in Andalusia from olive sector residues, and the economic value that could be obtained from these energy uses. For this, the current data on installed power and electrical and thermal generation are compared with the calculated potential data which would be obtained at full capacity. The results show there is a 69.23% wastage of olive sector residues for energy purposes. Thus, using the resources at full capacity, 3.9 million tons of biomass per year could be obtained for energy purposes. Currently, only 2 million tons of biomass are used for energy purposes. This wastage translates into a below potential generation of electrical and thermal energy. The full use of these residues would allow 83.9% and 64.9% higher generation of electrical and thermal energy, respectively. The results obtained also show that the economic value of olive sector biomass is higher than the market price value, with the average values for each use being 248.20 €/t for domestic thermal use, 165.04 €/t for electrical use and 139.50 €/t for industrial thermal use. Thus, it is considered feasible that the olive sector biomass could be used to a greater degree than at present. In this sense, it is recommended that more electricity generation plants and thermal-generating systems be put into operation. • There is a 69.2% wastage of olive sector residues that could be used for energy purposes. • The full use of olive by-products would account for 6.2% of renewable electricity. • The full use of olive by-products would account for 26.7% of thermal generation. • Better use of residues would promote the start-up of 55 and 1762 electricity and thermal plants, respectively. • The economic value of olive sector biomass allows the value chain to be covered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Power systems require a wide range of ancillary services in order to function and renewables will be expected to provide such services in line with their increasing penetration. This paper focuses on the participation of wind energy in response and reserve markets. We compare the present situation in Great Britain (GB) and Spain, and make recommendations to support future development. Wind is already participating in a limited range of ancillary services in both countries: frequency response in GB and reserve services in Spain. We analyse the effects of market design, subsidy arrangements, and system-specific needs on participation of wind in these markets, and then make policy recommendations designed to enable increased participation from wind. Our recommendations include the use of short-term markets to enable the use of accurate wind power forecasts, capacity-based subsidy schemes to avoid distorting ancillary service markets, and facilitating the participation of aggregated (single and mixed technology) resources. Country-specific recommendations include revising the current settlement process in GB to remove the incentive to over-estimate short-term generation forecasts, and establishing a competitive frequency containment reserve market in Spain. These recommendations are supported by analysis of publicly available market data. • Subsidy free or capacity based subsidies will increase reserve provision from wind. • A market mechanism for frequency response should be considered in Spain. • Restoration reserve from wind in Spain has increased since regulatory changes in 2012. • Aggregated wind bids should be allowed to improve market access. • GB constraint payment mechanism should incentivise more accurate forecasts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]