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Societal debates are often constructed through dichotomies influenced by various factors such as cognitive capabilities of individuals, culturally shaped valuation processes, underlying societal struggles for power and prestige, economic competition, technological changes or lock-ins and operation logic of the media and social media. Debates over emerging technologies of renewable energy provide an illustrative example of this polarisation. Based on national-level studies focusing on the development of the biogas sector in Finland, we identify ten pertinent dichotomies of renewable energy and discuss their implications for the transition towards a more sustainable energy system. The dichotomies include: producer vs. consumer, urban vs. rural, local vs. national, domestic vs. foreign, centralised vs. distributed, food vs. energy, environment vs. economy, traditional vs. innovative, long-term vs. short-term, and private vs. public. These diverse and deeply rooted dichotomies structure societal debate. In some cases they may encourage and guide critical thinking, but they may also hinder the renewing of the current energy behaviour and energy system. Societal capabilities that enable the bridging of different but inherently linked dichotomies are a key precondition of sustainable energy transition. • Dichotomies give shape to the energy debate and create framings highlighting or hiding issues. • Dichotomies and societal polarisations based on multiple materials were analysed. • Ten key dichotomies were identified from the national biogas debate in Finland. • Impressions of small-scale and bottom-up types of technologies have dominated the debate. • As a combined effect of the dichotomies, biogas remains to be understood as an isolated solution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Local level actors have an important role in developing small-scale energy innovations as well as disseminating the gained knowledge to key audiences. Diffusion of these energy solutions from innovators and early adopters to wider user groups has often been slow. This study explores the innovators׳ and early adopters׳ experiences of their projects, motivations for their behavior, and obstacles that inhibit the diffusion of energy innovations. Four different types of innovators and early adopters of new energy solutions are identified: Enthusiasts, Utilizers, Green Developers and Green Consumers. These groups are characterized by different sets of motivating factors, including environmental concern, interest in technology, economic profit, self-sufficiency, willingness to utilize excess material, promotion of innovations and image reasons. They also have encountered different kinds of barriers to their actions, such as lack of relevant information, poor product quality and lack of economic and institutional support. The different motivating and forestalling factors should be identified and taken into account when developing incentives as well as interaction and communication strategies to enhance the diffusion of innovative, sustainable small-scale energy solutions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]