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This paper examines how certified organic cotton initiatives (COCIs) influence community capitals in rural Peru, Tanzania and India using the community capitals framework (CCF). Case study analyses, including qualitative interviews of farmers, expert interviews and participatory observations, were conducted in Northern Peru, Northern Tanzania and Eastern India. The results show slight changes in community capitals in Peru, while comprehensive changes and spiraling-up effects were triggered by certified organic cotton farming initiatives in Tanzania and India. These community developments strongly depended on set measures, such as the extent of (1) partnership (e.g., contract farming), (2) input support (e.g., seeds, loans, community infrastructure), (3) capacity building (through training and advisory services), (4) group formation and (5) formation of cooperatives. Favorable environmental conditions and supporting local institutions facilitated spiraling-up effects, while social preconditions (e.g., gender inequality) strongly limited these effects. The research showed that COCIs have considerable potential to trigger spiraling-up effects in rural communities. However, the capacity strongly depends on the respective initiative and its ability to involve and empower farmers, i.e., to build up human and social capital.

Cotton is an important source of income for smallholder farmers in India, usually grown very intensively. To counteract negative impacts of cotton cultivation in India, such as environmental degradation and financial dependency due to high input costs, organic cotton cultivation is being promoted by non-governmental organizations in the country. This study examines how the conversion to organic cotton cultivation influences the livelihood of smallholder farmers in rural India. Interviews with organic farmers were conducted in Odisha, India, complemented by expert interviews and observations in the field. Results show that farmers profit from organic agriculture, mainly due to soil improvements, through reduced exposure to toxic chemicals and lower input costs, which in turn reduces dependency on money lenders. Organic agriculture enables smallholder farmers in the study region to improve their livelihood by providing access to training and by organizing in groups. Important social impacts identified in this study were capacity building and strengthened communities, through training and institution building. However, a higher workload, due to the higher work intensity of organic farming practices, was also observed, with this impacting women more than men. Environmental conditions and gender aspects still remain challenging.

In Tanzania, as in many developing countries, cotton is an important source of income for smallholder farmers but also causes various negative effects through high pesticide and intensive land use. To overcome these effects organic agriculture is promoted by different non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and companies. This study examines how organic cotton cultivation influences the livelihood of smallholder farmers in rural Tanzania and focuses on three areas: (1) the motivation to change from conventional to organic farming, (2) experiences and challenges of farmers in the conversion process as well as in the period following the conversion, and (3) the attitude and perceptions of farmers toward organic farming in general. Qualitative interviews with organic farmers in Meatu district in the north of Tanzania, as well as expert interviews, were conducted and observations were made. Results show that although the organic price premium is an important incentive for farmers to convert to organic agriculture, access to training and advisory service are even more important, as no other sufficient agriculture extension service is available in the region. Due to a high level of poverty in the region, environmental motivations for conversion are not in the foreground. Furthermore, the study shows that organic farming can contribute greatly to the improvement of livelihoods in the region (improved soil fertility, increased yields and income, higher standard of living) and increases farmers’ ability to cope with challenges, mainly through knowledge transfer, access to capital and capacity building on a local level. Although positive effects on female farmers were identified, cultural preconditions (e.g., polygamy) harm efforts to strengthen women to a higher degree and gender disparities are still challenging. Further social problems (i.e., high birth rates, a poor education system and a lack of health care), global trading schemes as well as environmental factors (i.e., water scarcity and extreme weather events) cannot be fully offset by the conversion to organic cotton cultivation. Farmers in the Meatu region profit to a high degree from organic agriculture, mainly due to access to knowledge and extension services, nevertheless important challenges remain for farmers and their families.

Organic farmers throughout Austria were asked in 1999 if, once the first agri-environmental program (ÖPUL) ends, they intended to commit themselves to a further five-year period of organic farming. The study presented here addresses those farmers who expressed in the survey the intention to end their participation in organic farming under ÖPUL, or who were undecided at that time. The aim was to compare and analyze the intended behavior with actual behavior. The research was based on material from, and analyses of, the 1999 survey and the survey conducted in 2002. Additional information regarding the reasons for abandoning (or continuing) organic farming and the decision-making process itself was collected through a series of telephone interviews in 2004. The comparison revealed a connection between actual behavior and the intentions expressed in the 1999 survey. However, there were no clear differences in terms of the reasons given in 1999 for potentially discontinuing with organic farming between those farms that remained organic and those that reverted to conventional farming methods. There were differences between those reasons given in the 1999 survey for potentially leaving organic agriculture and the reasons that determined the actual decision, as cited in telephone interviews in 2004. In the 1999 survey, economic issues were the main reasons for potentially ceasing to farm organically. When it came to the actual decision, problems concerning organic guidelines and inspections were more prominent. The environmental attitudes and the social embedding of the farmers within organic agriculture played a decisive role on those enterprises that chose to continue farming organically. The analysis indicates that the presence of a successor is also a stabilizing factor for organic farming.