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A green heterogeneous acid catalyst derived from agro-industrial waste obtained from ginger straw was prepared via partial carbonization, followed by sulfonation using sulfuric acid. Three variables, including the carbonization temperature, carbonization time and sulfonation temperature, were optimized to achieve the ideal preparation conditions and the as-synthesized catalyst was characterized using X-ray diffraction, elemental analysis, scanning electron microscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, N 2 adsorption-desorption and acid density studies to reveal the relationship between its catalytic performance and physical-chemical properties. The results show that the ginger straw-based catalyst prepared via carbonization for 60 min at 350 °C, followed by sulfonation at 105 °C, has an amorphous carbon structure with an –SO 3 H group density of 1.05 mmol/g. In addition, the catalyst exhibits thermal stability up to 200 °C and satisfactory catalytic performance (93.2% conversion) during the esterification of oleic acid using methanol under the optimized reaction conditions (9:1 M ratio of methanol to oleic acid; catalyst loading, 7 wt%; reaction temperature, 64 °C; reaction time, 210 min). Although its catalytic activity was later found to decrease with cycling, the spent catalyst remains stable after the 5th cycle with a conversion of 65.6%. • Ginger straw is used to prepare heterogeneous acid and utilized in esterification. • The as-synthesized acid catalyst gains sulfonic acid density of 1.05 mmol/g. • Catalyzed esterification conversion of oleic acid with methanol is up to 93.2%. • Acid sites leaching plays a dominant role in catalytic reusability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A novel acid-base bifunctional Zn/Ca–Zr catalyst has been synthesized successfully for biodiesel production from palm oil and acidified oil. The influence of synthetic factors on the catalytic activity of resulting Zn/Ca–Zr were discussed. Furthermore, the FAMEs yield was optimized to achieve the maximum value using the Taguchi approach. Results showed that the catalyst synthesized using a metal stoichiometric ratio of 4 : 4: 4, hydrothermal conditions, and activation temperature of 850 °C exhibited the best activity. The highest FAMEs yield was found to be 94.9% under the conditions of 5 wt% catalyst dosage, methanol/palm oil molar ratio of 20, and temperature of 170 °C at 3 h. The contribution percentage indicated that the methanol/oil molar ratio had the most significant effect on the FAMEs yield. Moreover, the Zn/Ca–Zr catalyst can catalyze the simultaneous esterification and transesterification of acidified palm oil with a 95.1% FAMEs yield and 93.3% acid reduction rate. And a 78.2% FAMEs yield can be maintained after four repeated cycles. Molecular simulations indicated the active site of Zn was more easily attacked by FFAs for esterification, while the active site of Ca was retained to adsorb methanol for transesterification, which explained the catalyst's acid-base bifunctional characteristics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Thermal degradation properties of stearic acid and its esterification derivants of methyl stearate and ethyl stearate are investigated through thermogravimetric analysis. Based on experiments, which are conducted at the temperature heated rates of 10, 15 and 20 K min−1, the iso-conversional methods of Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose and Flynn-Wall-Ozawa are used to calculate the apparent activation energy. Further, the Avrami theory is used to estimate the apparent reaction order. Apparent thermodynamic parameters of the apparent enthalpy change, apparent Gibbs free energy change and apparent entropy change are calculated. Calculations of apparent kinetic and thermodynamic parameters illustrate that thermal activity of stearic acid is distinctly heightened after esterification and the derived derivants are more easily activated. Meanwhile, influences of alcohol type on esterification products are weak. Conclusions from this study make more comprehensive understanding of the thermal events of biodiesel to be favor for its commercial application. Highlights • Thermogravimetric is practical in evaluating thermal degradation of biodiesel. • Esterification derivants are more easily activated than stearic acid. • Influences of alcohol type on esterification products are weak. • Thermal degradation of biodiesel could be described by more than one model. • Kinetic and thermodynamic calculations manifest thermal degradation profoundly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]