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Despite the strong global focus on improving maternal health during past decades, there is still a long way to go to ensure equitable access to services and quality of care for women and girls around the world. To understand widely acknowledged inequities and policy-to-practice gaps in maternal health, we must critically analyse the workings of power in policy and health systems. This paper analyses power dynamics at play in the implementation of maternal health policies in rural Malawi, a country with one of the world's highest burdens of maternal mortality. Specifically, we analyse Malawi's recent experience with the temporary reintroduction of user-fees for maternity services as a response to the suspension of donor funding, a shift in political leadership and priorities, and unstable service contracts between the government and its implementing partner, the Christian Health Association of Malawi. Based on ethnographic research conducted in 2015/16, the article describes the perceptions and experiences of policy implementation among various local actors (health workers, village heads and women). The way in which maternity services "fall apart" and are "fixed" is the result of dynamic interactions between policy and webs of accountability. Policies meet with a cascade of dynamic responses, which ultimately result in the exclusion of the most vulnerable rural women from maternity care services, against the aims of global and national safe motherhood policies.

The caste system is a complex social stratification system which has been abolished, but remains deeply ingrained in India. Scheduled Caste (SC) women are one of the historically deprived groups, as reflected in poor maternal health outcomes and low utilisation of maternal healthcare services. Key government schemes introduced in 2005 mean healthcare-associated costs should now be far less of a deterrent. This paper examines the factors contributing to this low use of maternal health services by investigating the perceptions, health-seeking behaviours and access of SC women to maternal healthcare services in Bihar, India. Eighteen in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with SC women in Bihar. Data were analysed using Framework Analysis and presented using the AAAQ Toolbox. Main facilitating factors included the introduction of accredited social health activists (ASHAs), free maternal health services, the Janani Shishu Suraksha Karyakram (JSSK), and changes in the cultural acceptability of institutional delivery. Main barriers included inadequate ASHA coverage, poor information access, transport costs and unauthorised charges to SC women from healthcare staff. SC women in Bihar may be inequitably served by maternal health services, and in some cases may face specific discrimination. Recommendations to improve SC service utilisation include research into the improvement of postnatal care, reducing unauthorised payments to healthcare staff and improvements to the ASHA programme.

Brazil is a middle-income country with universal maternity care, mostly by doctors. The experience of normal birth often includes rigid routines, aggressive interventions, and abusive, disrespectful treatment. In Brazil, this has been referred to as dehumanised care and, more recently, as obstetric violence. Since the early 1990s, social movements (SM) have struggled to change practices, public policies and provider training. The aim of this paper is to describe and analyse the role of SM in promoting change in maternity care, and in provider training. In this integrative review using a gender-oriented approach, we searched the Scielo database and the Ministry of Health’s (MofH) publications and edicts for institutional and research papers on SM initiatives addressing disrespect and abuse in the last 25 years (1993-2018) in Brazil, and their impact on public policies and training programmes. We analyse these groups of interrelated initiatives: (1) political actions of SM resulting in changes in public policies and legislation; (2) events organised by SM for diffusion of information to the public; (3) MofH policies to humanise childbirth with participation of SM; and (4) initiatives to change providers’ training, including legal actions based on obstetric violence reports. To promote real change in maternity care, the progression of policies and enabling environment of laws, regulations, and broad dissemination of information, need to go hand in hand with changes in all health providers’ training - including a solid base in ethics, gender and human rights. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In support of maternal health, disease-specific and target-oriented global policy initiatives, such as in Millennium Development Goal 5, have led to a prioritisation of narrow indicators at the expense of more comprehensive approaches. In line with global policy, Nicaragua has made skilled attendants and institutionalised delivery central to its efforts to achieving MDG5 on maternal health. Drawing on ethnographic fieldwork in Nicaragua, involving participant observation and interviews with hospital and community health workers, and women and their families, this paper critically discusses how target-oriented maternal health strategies were manifested in local realities. It shows that Nicaragua's brigadistas (community health workers) and parteras (traditional birth attendants) have been driven to narrowing their own roles to identifying pregnant women and advocating that they have an institutional delivery as one their most important tasks, making them agents of MDG 5 target achievement. This has engendered fear among brigadistas and parteras of being held individually responsible in the event of a maternal death, creating dissatisfaction with their role and reducing their motivation. While intended to improve maternal health, the pressure to reach targets has unintended negative implications for the relationship between women, the local volunteers and the formal health system, which needs to be addressed., (Copyright © 2013 Reproductive Health Matters. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This paper sheds light on the inter-generational changes in pregnancy and childbirth practices in remote areas of Lao PDR over a period of 30 years. The study consisted of focus group discussions with pregnant women aged 14-30, mothers and fathers of small children, and older women aged 40+ in six rural communities in two districts. Childbirth practices were gradually evolving and changing - most dramatically illustrated by the transition from forest-based to home-based delivery, and a few health facility-based deliveries when complications occurred. Today's generation of women aged 40+ did not recommend all the practices of their mothers, but saw the need to adapt due to the social and medical risks they had experienced, especially high rates of neonatal death. Their daughters are doing the same. The increase in home-based deliveries should be regarded as significant progress in this setting in rural Laos. Understanding how young women interpret their options and incorporating that knowledge and the experience of successful local outreach programmes into health system policy and practice for maternity care, e.g. by strengthening the skills of community-based health workers, could contribute to improving maternal and neonatal survival and reducing health inequalities., (Copyright © 2013 Reproductive Health Matters. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Maternal mortality has been falling significantly in Cambodia since 2005 though it had been stagnant for at least 15 years before that. This paper analyzes the evolution of some major societal and health system factors based on recent national and international reports. The maternal mortality ratio fell from 472 per 100,000 live births in 2000-2005 to 206 in 2006-2010. Background factors have included peace and stability, economic growth and poverty reduction, improved primary education, especially for girls, improved roads, improved access to information on health and health services via TV, radio and cellphones, and increased ability to communicate with and within the health system. Specific health system improvements include a rapid increase in facility-based births and skilled birth attendance, notably investment in midwifery training and numbers of midwives providing antenatal care and deliveries within an expanding primary health care network, a monetary incentive for facility-based midwives for every live birth conducted, and an expanding system of health equity funds, making health care free of cost for poor people. Several major challenges remain, including post-partum care, family planning, prevention and treatment of breast and cervical cancer, and addressing sexual violence against women, which need the same priority attention as maternity care., (Copyright © 2012 Reproductive Health Matters. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Current efforts to reduce maternal mortality and morbidity in low-resource settings often depend on global standards and indicators to assess obstetric care, particularly skilled birth attendants and emergency obstetric care. This paper describes challenges in using these standards to assess obstetric services in the Kilombero Valley of Tanzania. A health facility survey and extensive participant observation showed existing services to be complicated and fluid, involving a wide array of skills, resources, and improvisations. Attempts to measure these services against established standards and indicators were not successful. Some aspects of care were over-valued while others were under-valued, with significant neglect of context and quality. This paper discusses the implications of these findings for ongoing maternal health care efforts in unique and complex settings, questioning the current reliance on generic (and often obscure) archetypes of obstetric care in policy and programming. It suggests that current indicators may be insufficient to assess services in low-resource settings, but not that these settings should settle for lower standards of care. In addition to global benchmarks, assessment approaches that emphasize quality of care and recognize available resources might better account for local realities, leading to more effective, more sustainable service delivery., (Copyright © 2012 Reproductive Health Matters. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This paper proposes a new, community-based approach to the measurement of maternal mortality, and presents results from a feasibility study in 2010-11 of that approach in rural Tigray, Ethiopia. The study was implemented in three health posts and one health centre with a total catchment area of approximately 22,000 people. Priests, traditional birth attendants and community-based reproductive health agents were responsible for locating and reporting all births and deaths in their areas and assisted mid-level providers in locating key informants for verbal autopsy. Community-based health workers were trained to report all births and deaths to the local health post, where vital registries were kept. Once a month, each health post compiled a list of all deaths of women aged 12-49, which were registered in government logbooks. Nurses and nurse-midwives were trained to administer verbal autopsies on these deaths, and assign primary cause of death using WHO ICD-10 classifications. The study drew on the theory of task-shifting, shifting the task of cause-of-death attribution from physicians to mid-level providers. It aimed to build a sustainable methodology for maximizing existing local health care infrastructure and human capacity, leading to community-based solutions to improve maternal health. While the approach has not yet been implemented outside the initial study area, the results are promising as regards its feasibility., (Copyright © 2012 Reproductive Health Matters. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

In Nepal, India, Bangladesh and Pakistan, policy focused on improving access to maternity services has led to measures to reduce cost barriers impeding women's access to care. Specifically, these include cash transfer or voucher schemes designed to stimulate demand for services, including antenatal, delivery and post-partum care. In spite of their popularity, however, little is known about the impact or effectiveness of these schemes. This paper provides an overview of five major interventions: the Aama (Mothers') Programme (cash transfer element) in Nepal; the Janani Suraksha Yojana (Safe Motherhood Scheme) in India; the Chiranjeevi Yojana (Scheme for Long Life) in India; the Maternal Health Voucher Scheme in Bangladesh and the Sehat (Health) Voucher Scheme in Pakistan. It reviews the aims, rationale, implementation challenges, known outcomes, potential and limitations of each scheme based on current available data. Increased use of maternal health services has been reported since the schemes began, though evidence of improvements in maternal health outcomes has not been established due to a lack of controlled studies. Areas for improvement in these schemes, identified in this review, include the need for more efficient operational management, clear guidelines, financial transparency, plans for sustainability, evidence of equity and, above all, proven impact on quality of care and maternal mortality and morbidity., (Copyright © 2012 Reproductive Health Matters. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

From 2000 to 2010, Rwanda implemented comprehensive health sector reforms to strengthen the public health system, with the aim of reducing maternal and newborn deaths in line with Millennium Development Goal 5, among many other improvements in national health. Based on a systematic review of the literature, national policy documents and three Demographic & Health Surveys (2000, 2005 and 2010), this paper describes the reforms and the policies they were based on, and provides data on the extent of Rwanda's progress in expanding the coverage of four key women's health services. Progress took place in 2000-2005 and became more rapid after 2006, mostly in rural areas, when the national facility-based childbirth policy, performance-based financing, and community-based health insurance were scaled up. Between 2006 and 2010, the following increases in coverage took place as compared to 2000-2005, particularly in rural areas, where most poor women live: births with skilled attendance (77% increase vs. 26%), institutional delivery (146% increase vs. 8%), and contraceptive prevalence (351% increase vs. 150%). The primary factors in these improvements were increases in the health workforce and their skills, performance-based financing, community-based health insurance, and better leadership and governance. Further research is needed to determine the impact of these changes on health outcomes in women and children., (Copyright © 2012 Reproductive Health Matters. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Partnerships between civil society groups campaigning for reproductive and human rights, health professionals and others could contribute more to the strengthening of health systems needed to bring about declines in maternal deaths in Africa. The success of the HIV treatment literacy model developed by the Treatment Action Campaign in South Africa provides useful lessons for activism on maternal mortality, especially the combination of a right-to-health approach with learning and capacity building, community networking, popular mobilisation and legal action. This paper provides examples of these from South Africa, Botswana, Kenya and Uganda. Confidential enquiries into maternal deaths can be powerful instruments for change if pressure to act on their recommendations is brought to bear. Shadow reports presented during UN human rights country assessments can be used in a similar way. Public protests and demonstrations over avoidable deaths have succeeded in drawing attention to under-resourced services, shortages of supplies, including blood for transfusion, poor morale among staff, and lack of training and supervision. Activists could play a bigger role in holding health services, governments, and policy-makers accountable for poor maternity services, developing user-friendly information materials for women and their families, and motivating appropriate human resources strategies. Training and support for patients' groups, in how to use health facility complaints procedures is also a valuable strategy., (Copyright © 2012 Reproductive Health Matters. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

The private health sector in India is generally unregulated. Maharashtra is among the few states which require registration of private hospitals. This paper reports on a study of standards of care in small, private hospitals (less than 30 beds) in Maharashtra state, India, with a focus on maternity care, based on interviews with the hospitals' owners or senior staff, and observation. In the absence of reliable information on the number of private hospitals in the state, a physical listing was carried out in 11 districts and an estimate drawn up; 10% of hospitals found in each location were included in the study sample. We found poor standards of care in many cases, and few or no qualified nurses or a duty medical officer in attendance. Of the 261 hospitals visited, 146 provided maternity services yet 137 did not have a qualified midwife, and though most claimed they provided emergency care, including caesarean section, only three had a blood bank and eight had an ambulance. Government plans to promote public-private partnerships with such hospitals, including for maternity services, create concern, given our findings. The need to enforce existing regulations and collect information on health outcomes and quality of care before the state involves these hospitals further in provision of maternity care is called for., (Copyright © 2011 Reproductive Health Matters. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This paper reports on an evaluation of a domestic violence intervention in the maternity and sexual health services of a UK hospital. The intervention encompassed guidelines, staff training, inclusion of routine enquiry for domestic violence with all patients, and referral of women disclosing violence to an on-site advocacy service. An "assumption querying" approach was applied to evaluate the intervention. Programmatic assumptions were identified and tested using interviews with service providers and patients, review of patient records, and pre- and post-training questionnaires. Domestic violence training resulted in changes in health professionals' knowledge and practice in the short-term, but universal routine enquiry was not achieved even in a context of organisational support, guidelines, training and advocacy. Potential and actual harm occurred, including breaches of confidentiality and failure to document evidence, limiting women's ability to access civil and legal remedies. Advocacy support led to positive outcomes for many women, as long as support to maintain positive changes, whether women stayed with or left the violent partner, continued to be given. Maternity and sexual health services were found to be opportune points of intervention for domestic violence services that combine routine enquiry by clinicians, support after disclosure and attention to harm reduction., (Copyright © 2010 Reproductive Health Matters. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

This paper documents the experience of two health centres in a primary health service located in interior rural areas of southern Rajasthan, northern India, where trained nurse-midwives are providing skilled maternal and newborn care round the clock daily. The nurse-midwives independently detect and manage complications and decide when to refer women to the nearest hospital for emergency care, in telephonic consultation with a doctor if required. From 2000-2008, 2,771 women in labour and 202 women with maternal emergencies who were not in labour were attended by nurse-midwives. Of women in labour, 21% had a life-threatening complication or its antecedent condition and 16% were advised referral, of which two-thirds complied. Compliance with referral was higher for maternal conditions than fetal conditions. Among the 202 women who came with complications antenatally, post-abortion or post-partum, referral was advised for 70%, of whom 72% complied. The referral system included counselling, arranging transport, accompanying women, facilitating admission and supporting inpatient care, and led to higher referral compliance rates. There was only one maternal death in nine years. We conclude that trained nurse-midwives can significantly improve access to skilled maternal and neonatal care in rural areas, and manage maternal complications with and without the need for referral. Protocols must acknowledge that some families might not comply with referral advice, and also that initial care by nurse-midwives can reverse progression of certain complications and thereby avert the need for referral.

This paper draws on two reviews commissioned by the UK Department for International Development in 2006-2007 that explore progress in linking HIV prevention and maternity services in sub-Saharan Africa. Although pilot and demonstration projects have been successful, progress in scaling up PMTCT has been slow, reaching just 11% of pregnant HIV positive women in much of Africa, less than half the percentage of coverage achieved by antiretroviral treatment programmes for adults in need. Despite ongoing efforts to promote comprehensive approaches, significant policy, financing and institutional barriers, and weak co-ordination and leadership, continue to hamper progress. Maternal health services face human and financial resource shortages which affect their capacity to integrate HIV prevention. Both HIV and maternal health programmes often receive targeted financial and technical assistance that does not take the other into account. However, proposals in 2007 from a number of countries to the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, TB and Malaria incorporate sexual and reproductive health programming that will have an impact on HIV, including certain maternity services. Moreover, Botswana, Kenya and Rwanda have shown that progress can be made where national commitment and increased resources are enabling maternal and newborn care to address HIV.

In resource-poor countries, the high cost of user fees for deliveries limits access to skilled attendance, and contributes to maternal and neonatal mortality and the impoverishment of vulnerable households. A growing number of countries are experimenting with different approaches to tackling financial barriers to maternal health care. This paper describes an innovative scheme introduced in Ghana in 2003 to exempt all pregnant women from payments for delivery, in which public, mission and private providers could claim back lost user fee revenues, according to an agreed tariff. The paper presents part of the findings of an evaluation of the policy based on interviews with 65 key informants in the health system at national, regional, district and facility level, including policymakers, managers and providers. The exemption mechanism was well accepted and appropriate, but there were important problems with disbursing and sustaining the funding, and with budgeting and management. Staff workloads increased as more women attended, and levels of compensation for services and staff were important to the scheme's acceptance. At the end of 2005, a national health insurance scheme, intended to include full maternal health care cover, was starting up in Ghana, and it was not yet clear how the exemptions scheme would fit into it.

This paper discusses the implications of shortages of midwives, nurses and doctors for maternal health and health services in sub-Saharan Africa, and inequitable distribution of maternal health professionals between geographic areas and health facilities. Shortages of health professionals reduce the number of facilities equipped to offer emergency obstetric care 24 hours a day, and are significantly related to quality of care and maternal mortality rates. Some countries are experiencing depletion of their workforces due to emigration and HIV-related illness. Another feature is the movement from public to private health facilities, and to international health and development organisations. The availability of skilled birth attendants and emergency obstetric care may be reduced due to understaffing, particularly in rural, poor areas. The existing workforce may experience increased workloads and job dissatisfaction, and may have to undertake tasks for which they are not trained. If governments and development partners are serious about reaching the Millennium Development Goal on maternal health, substantial numbers of professionals with midwifery skills will be needed. Shortages of maternal health professionals should be addressed within overall human resources policy. A rethink of health sector reforms and macro-economic development policies is called for, to focus on equity and strengthening the role of the state.

In the last 50 years, a rapid increase in the use of technology to start, augment, accelerate, regulate and monitor the process of birth has frequently led to the adoption of inadequate, unnecessary and sometimes dangerous interventions. Although research has shown that the least amount of interference compatible with safety is the paradigm to follow, vaginal birth is still being treated as if it carries a high risk to women's health and sexual life in Brazil. This paper describes the impact of the intervention model on women's birth experience, and discusses how the organisation of public and private maternity services in Brazil influences the quality of obstetric care. Brazil is known for high rates of unnecessary caesarean section ("the cut above"), performed in over two-thirds of births in the private sector, where 30% of women give birth. The 94.2% rate of episiotomy ("the cut below") in women who give birth vaginally, affecting the 70% of poor women using the public sector most, receives less attention. A change in the understanding of women's bodies is required before a change in the procedures themselves can be expected. Since 1993, inspired by campaigns against female genital mutilation, a national movement of providers, feminists and consumer groups has been promoting evidence-based care and humanisation of childbirth in Brazil, to reduce unnecessary surgical procedures.

Approximately 80% of HIV cases are transmitted sexually and a further 10% perinatally or during breastfeeding. Hence, the health sector has looked to sexual and reproductive health programmes for leadership and guidance in providing information and counselling to prevent these forms of transmission, and more recently to undertake some aspects of treatment. This paper reviews and assesses the contributions made to date by sexual and reproductive health services to HIV/AIDS prevention and treatment, mainly by services for family planning, sexually transmitted infections and antenatal and delivery care. It also describes other sexual and reproductive health problems experienced by HIV-positive women, such as the need for abortion services, infertility services and cervical cancer screening and treatment. This paper shows that sexual and reproductive health programmes can make an important contribution to HIV prevention and treatment, and that STI control is important both for sexual and reproductive health and HIV/AIDS control. It concludes that more integrated programmes of sexual and reproductive health care and STI/HIV/AIDS control should be developed which jointly offer certain services, expand outreach to new population groups, and create well-functioning referral links to optimize the outreach and impact of what are to date essentially vertical programmes.

In Uganda, lack of resources and skilled staff to improve quality and delivery of maternity services, despite good policies and concerted efforts, have not yielded an increase in utilisation of these services by women or a reduction in the high ratio of maternal deaths. This paper reports a study conducted from November 2000 to October 2001 in Hoima, a rural district in western Uganda, whose aim was to enhance understanding of why, when faced with complications of pregnancy or delivery, women continue to choose high risk options leading to severe morbidity and even their own deaths. The findings demonstrate that adherence to traditional birthing practices and beliefs that pregnancy is a test of endurance and maternal death a sad but normal event, are important factors. The use of primary health units and the referral hospital, including when complications occur, was considered only as a last resort. Lack of skilled staff at primary health care level, complaints of abuse, neglect and poor treatment in hospital and poorly understood reasons for procedures, plus health workers' views that women were ignorant, also explain the unwillingness of women to deliver in health facilities and seek care for complications. Appropriate interventions are needed to address the barriers between rural mothers and the formal health care system, including community education on all aspects of essential obstetric care and sensitisation of service providers to the situation of rural mothers.

Despite initiatives and interventions undertaken at national and international levels, maternal health is still neglected in Bangladesh, and the maternal mortality ratio remains one of the highest in the world. In order to improve rural women's access to maternity care, in 1996 the Bangladesh Rural Advancement Committee (BRAC) instituted services for birthing women in 21 health facilities in each Thana. This paper reports on research conducted three years later, based on interviews with women who gave birth in one BRAC Health Centre (BHC) and women who gave birth at home, interviews with staff of the BHC and observation of provider-patient relations. Acceptance of delivery in a health facility by rural women is still minimal. Most women only attended the BHC due to complications, yet the BHC was unable to handle most complications and referred women to the district hospital, where they received poor quality care. Cost, fear of hospitals and the stigma of an 'abnormal' birth were also important constraints. Female paramedics who attended normal deliveries were praised for being caring, but made women deliver lying down, did not always use aseptic procedures and were too busy to give information, making birth a passive experience. Recommendations to provide comprehensive emergency obstetric care at the BHC and upgrade staff skills, introduce rural health insurance and others have already begun to be implemented.

Privatisation in Pakistan's health sector was part of the Structural Adjustment Programme that started in 1998 following the country's acute foreign exchange crisis. This paper examines three examples of privatisation which have taken place in service delivery, management and capacity-building functions in the health sector: 1) large-scale contracting out of publicly-funded health services to private, not-for-profit organisations; 2) social marketing/franchising networks providing reproductive health services; and 3) a public-private partnership involving a consortium of private players and the government of Pakistan. It assesses the extent to which these initiatives have contributed to promoting equitable access to good quality, comprehensive reproductive health services. The paper concludes that these forms of privatisation in Pakistan's health sector have at best made available a limited range of fragmented reproductive health services, often of sub-optimal quality, to a fraction of the population, with poor returns in terms of health and survival, especially for women. This analysis has exposed a deep-rooted malaise within the health system as an important contributor to this situation. Sustained investment in health system strengthening is called for, where resources from both public and private sectors are channelled towards achieving health equity, under the stewardship of the state and with active participation by and accountability to members of civil society. La privatisation du secteur de la santé pakistanais s'inscrivait dans le programme d'ajustement structurel lancé en 1998 après la crise aigüe de liquidités du pays. Cet article examine trois exemples de la privatisation qui a touché les fonctions de prestation de services, gestion et renforcement des capacités dans le secteur de la santé : 1) sous-traitance de la prestation de services financés par les fonds publics à des organisations à but non lucratif ; 2) réseaux de franchise sociale assurant des services de santé génésique ; et 3) partenariat public-privé réunissant un consortium d'acteurs privés et le Gouvernement pakistanais. Il évalue dans quelle mesure ces initiatives ont contribué à promouvoir un accès équitable à des services de santé génésique complets et de qualité. L'article conclut que ces formes de privatisation ont, au mieux, assuré la disponibilité d'une gamme limitée de services de santé génésique fragmentés, souvent de qualité sous-optimale, à une fraction de la population, avec de médiocres avantages pour la santé et la survie, en particulier des femmes. L'analyse met en lumière un malaise profondément enraciné dans le système de santé qui a contribué sensiblement à cette situation. Des investissements suivis sont requis en faveur du système de santé où les ressources des secteurs public et privé doivent être canalisées en vue de garantir l'équité dans la santé, sous l'administration générale de l'État et avec la participation active et le contrôle des membres de la société civile. La privatización en el sector salud de Pakistán fue parte del Programa de Ajuste Estructural iniciado en 1998 tras la aguda crisis de divisas. En este artículo se examinan tres ejemplos de privatización que han ocurrido en las funciones de prestación de servicios, administración y desarrollo de capacidad en el sector salud: 1) la contratación en gran escala de organizaciones sin fines de lucro para la prestación de servicios financiados públicamente; 2) la prestación de servicios de salud reproductiva por parte de redes de franquicias sociales; y 3) la alianza de los sectores público y privado, que consiste en un consorcio de actores particulares y el gobierno de Pakistán. Se examina hasta qué grado estas iniciativas han contribuido a promover acceso equitativo a servicios integrales y de buena calidad de salud reproductiva. Se concluye que estas formas de privatización en el sector salud de Pakistán, como mucho, han hecho disponibles una limitada gama de servicios de salud reproductiva fragmentados, a menudo de calidad subóptima, a una fracción de la población, con pocas recompensas en salud y supervivencia, especialmente para las mujeres. Este análisis expuso un malestar profundamente arraigado en el sistema de salud como un importante contribuidor a esta situación. Es imperativo continuar fortaleciendo el sistema de salud y canalizar los recursos de los sectores público y privado hacia lograr equidad en salud, bajo la administración del Estado y con la participación y responsabilidad de los integrantes de la sociedad civil. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ghana, like many countries, has taken up the call to integrate STI management with MCH/FP services. Since 1994 a range of policies has been developed on safe motherhood and family planning, as well as syndromic STI management guidelines for 'mid-level' staff and an all-encompassing 'reproductive health' policy. The success of these policy initiatives depends to a large extent on the processes and contexts of implementation, yet analysis of this has rarely been undertaken. This paper analyses the rural context of policy implementation in the rural Upper East Region of northern Ghana and suggests that a 'blanket' policy to integrate STI and FP/MCH services may be inappropriate in particular contexts. It illustrates how the implementation of health policies is influenced--and often impeded--not only by local service contexts, economic and epidemiological factors but also by culturally defined social attitudes and behaviours. These can influence not only whether a policy is accepted by a population but also how it is implemented by health staff. Future reproductive health policy needs to address these issues in order to develop goals which can realistically be implemented in specific settings. Enhancing at district level the voice of nurses working at community level and promoting collaborative, culturally-specific and community-based initiatives could facilitate this.

Concerns about disrespect and abuse (D&A) experienced by women during institutional birth have become critical to the discourse on maternal health. The rapid growth of the field from diverse points of origin has given rise to multiple and, at times, confusing interpretations of D&A, pointing to the need for greater clarity in the concepts themselves. Furthermore, attention to measurement of the problem has been excessive when viewed in relation to the small amount of work on critical drivers of disrespect and abuse. This paper raises some key issues of conceptualisation and measurement for the field, puts forward a working definition, and explores two critical drivers of D&A - intersecting social and economic inequality, and the institutional structures and processes that frame the practice of obstetric care. By identifying gaps and raising questions about the deeper causes of D&A, we point to potentially fruitful directions for research and action. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Human rights has been a vital tool in the global movement to reduce maternal mortality and to expose the disrespect and abuse that women experience during childbirth in facilities around the world. Yet to truly transform the relationship between women and providers, human rights-based approaches (HRBAs) will need to go beyond articulation, dissemination and even legal enforcement of formal norms of respectful maternity care. HRBAs must also develop a deeper, more nuanced understanding of how power operates in health systems under particular social, cultural and political conditions, if they are to effectively challenge settled patterns of behaviour and health systems structures that marginalise and abuse. In this paper, we report results from a mixed methods study in two hospitals in the Tanga region of Tanzania, comparing the prevalence of disrespect and abuse during childbirth as measured through observation by trained nurses stationed in maternity wards to prevalence as measured by the self-report upon discharge of the same women who had been observed. The huge disparity between these two measures (baseline: 69.83% observation vs. 9.91% self-report; endline: 32.91% observation vs. 7.59% self-report) suggests that disrespect and abuse is both internalised and normalised by users and providers alike. Building on qualitative research conducted in the study sites, we explore the mechanisms by which hidden and invisible power enforces internalisation and normalisation, and describe the implications for the development of HRBAs in maternal health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mistreatment of women during childbirth at health facilities violates their human rights and autonomy and may be associated with preventable maternal and newborn mortality and morbidity. In this paper, we explore women’s perspectives on mistreatment during facility-based childbirth as part of a bigger World Health Organization (WHO) multi-country study for developing consensus definitions, and validating indicators and tools for measuring the burden of the phenomenon. Focus group discussions (FGDs) and in-depth interviews (IDIs) were used to explore experiences of mistreatment from women who have ever given birth in a health facility in Koforidua and Nsawam, Ghana. Interviews were audio-recorded, transcribed and thematic analysis conducted. A total of 39 IDIs and 10 FGDs involving 110 women in total were conducted. The major types of mistreatment identified were: verbal abuse (shouting, insults, and derogatory remarks), physical abuse (pinching, slapping) and abandonment and lack of support. Mistreatment was commonly experienced during the second stage of labour, especially amongst adolescents. Inability to push well during the second stage, disobedience to instructions from birth attendants, and not bringing prescribed items for childbirth (mama kit) often preceded mistreatment. Most women indicated that slapping and pinching were acceptable means to “correct” disobedient behaviours and encourage pushing. Women may avoid giving birth in health facilities in the future because of their own experiences of mistreatment, or hearing about another woman’s experience of mistreatment. Consensus definitions, validated indicators and tools for measuring mistreatment are needed to measure prevalence and identify drivers and potential entry points to minimise the phenomenon and improve respectful care during childbirth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Issues arising from the death of Savita Halappanavar in Ireland in October 2012 include the question of whether it is unethical to refuse to terminate a non-viable pregnancy when the woman's life may be at risk. In Catholic maternity services, this decision intersects with health professionals' interpretation of Catholic health policy on treatment of miscarriage as well as the law on abortion. This paper explores how these issues came together around Savita's death and the consequences for pregnant women and maternity services worldwide. It discusses cases not only in Ireland but also the Americas. Many of the events presented are recent, and most of the sources are media and individual reports. However, there is a very worrying common thread across countries and continents. If further research unearths more cases like Savita's, any Catholic health professionals and/or hospitals refusing to terminate a pregnancy as emergency obstetric care should be stripped of their right to provide maternity services. In some countries these are the main or only existing maternity services. Even so, governments should refuse to fund these services, and either replace them with non-religious services or require that non-religious staff are available at all times specifically to take charge of such cases to prevent unnecessary deaths. At issue is whether a woman's life comes first or not at all. Parmi les enjeux soulevés par la mort de Savita Halappanavar en Irlande en octobre 2012 figure la question de savoir s'il est contraire à l'éthique de refuser d'interrompre une grossesse non viable quand la vie de la femme est menacée. Dans les maternités catholiques, cette décision est liée à l'interprétation que font les professionnels de la santé de la politique de santé catholique sur le traitement des fausses couches ainsi que la loi sur l'avortement. L'article étudie comment ces questions sont apparues autour du décès de Savita et les conséquences pour les femmes enceintes et les services de maternité dans le monde. Il examine des cas en Irlande, mais aussi aux Amériques. Beaucoup d'événements présentés sont récents et la plupart des sources sont des reportages ou des récits individuels. Néanmoins, il existe un dénominateur commun très inquiétant entre pays et continents. Si de nouvelles recherches mettent à jour d'autres cas comme celui de Savita, les professionnels de la santé et/ou hôpitaux catholiques refusant d'interrompre une grossesse comme soin obstétrical d'urgence devrait être privés de leur droit d'offrir des services de maternité. Dans certains pays, ils représentent les principaux ou les seuls services de maternité. Malgré cela, les autorités devraient refuser de financer ces services et les remplacer par des services non religieux ou exiger que du personne non religieux soit disponible à tout moment, spécifiquement pour prendre en charge ces cas et prévenir tout décès prématuré. La question est ici de savoir si la vie d'une femme passe ou non avant tout. Entre los temas examinados tras la muerte de Savita Halappanavar en Irlanda, en octubre de 2012, figura la interrogante si es poco ético negarse a interrumpir un embarazo no viable cuando la vida de la mujer podría correr peligro. En servicios de maternidad católicos, esta decisión cruza la interpretación de profesionales de la salud de la política católica en cuanto al tratamiento del aborto espontáneo, así como la ley referente al aborto. En este artículo se explora la interrelación de estos asuntos a raíz de la muerte de Savita y las consecuencias para las mujeres embarazadas y los servicios de maternidad mundialmente. Se analizan casos no solo en Irlanda sino también en las Américas. Muchos de los sucesos expuestos son recientes y la mayoría de las fuentes son medios de comunicación e informes individuales. Sin embargo, hay un hilo común muy preocupante entre países y continentes. Si en futuras investigaciones se descubren más casos como el de Savita, a todo profesional de la salud y/u hospital católico que rehuse interrumpir un embarazo como cuidados obstétricos de emergencia se le debe despojar de su derecho a ofrecer servicios de maternidad. En algunos países estos son los principales o únicos servicios de maternidad. Aun así, los gobiernos deberían rehusar financiar estos servicios y sustituirlos con servicios no religiosos o exigir que haya personal no religioso disponible en todo momento específicamente para encargarse de tales casos para evitar muertes innecesarias. La interrogante es si la vida de la mujer es o no lo primordial. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Misoprostol, a WHO essential medicine indicated for labour induction, management of miscarriage and post-partum haemorrhage, as well as for induced abortion and treatment of post-abortion complications, come up for registration in Sri Lanka in December 2010. The decision on registration was postponed, indefinitely. This has wide-ranging implications, as misoprostol is widely available and used, including by health professionals in Sri Lanka, without guidance or training in its use. This paper attempts to situate the failure to register misoprostol within the broader context of unsafe abortion, drawing on data from interviews with physicians and health policymakers in Sri Lanka. It demonstrates how personal opposition to abortion infiltrates policy decisions and prevents the issue of unsafe abortion being resolved. Any move to reform abortion law and policy in Sri Lanka will require a concerted effort, spearheaded by civil society. Women and communities affected by the consequences of unsafe abortion need to be involved in these efforts. Regardless of the law, women will access abortion services if they need them, and providers will provide them. Decriminalizing abortion and registering abortion medications will make provision of abortion services safer, less expensive and more equitable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper addresses equity in health and health care in Brazil, examining unjust disparities between women and men, and between women from different social strata, with a focus on services for contraception, abortion and pregnancy. In 2010 women's life expectancy was 7Z6 years, men's was 69.7 years. Women are two-thirds of public hospital services users and assess their health status less positively than men. The total fertility rate was 1.8 in 2011, and contraceptive prevalence has been high among women at all income levels. The proportion of sterilizations has decreased; lower-income women are more frequently sterilized. Abortions are mostly illegal; women with more money have better access to safe abortions in private clinics. Poorer women generally self-induce abortion with misoprostol, seeking treatment of complications from public clinics. Institutional violence on the part of health professionals is reported by half of women receiving abortion care and a quarter of women during childbirth. Maternity care is virtually universal. The public sector has fewer caesarean sections, fewer low birthweight babies, and more rooming-in, but excessive episiotomies and inductions. Privacy, continuity of care and companionship during birth are more common in the private sector. To achieve equity, the health system must go beyond universal, unregulated access to technology, and move towards safe, effective and transparent care. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2008 a pregnancy registration system was introduced in rural Tamil Nadu, India, which is now being scaled up. It will collect data on antenatal, delivery and post-partum care in pregnant women and infant health. This is seen as an important public health intervention, justified for its potential to ensure efficiency in provision and use of maternity services. However, from another perspective, it can be seen as a form of control over women, reducing the experience of safe pregnancy and delivery to a few measurable variables. The burden of implementing this task falls on Village Health Nurses, who are also women, reducing their time for interacting with and educating people and visiting communities, which is their primary task and the basis on which they are evaluated. In addition, they face logistical constraints in rural settings that may affect the quality of data. In a health system with rigid internal hierarchies and power differentials, this system may become more of a supervisory and monitoring tool than a tool for a learning health system. It may also lead to a victim-blaming approach ("you missed two antenatal visits") rather than health system learning to improve maternal and infant health. The paper concludes by recommending ways to use the system and the data to tackle the broader social determinants of health, with women, health workers and communities as partners in the process. Un système d'enregistrement des grossesses introduit en 2008 dans le Tamil Nadu rural, en Inde, est maintenant en cours de généralisation. Il recueillera des renseignements sur les soins prénatals, obstétricaux et du postpartum chez les femmes enceintes et sur la santé infantile. Il est considéré comme une importante intervention de santé publique, capable de garantir l'efficacité de la prestation et de l'utilisation des services de maternité. Néanmoins, d'un autre côté, on peut y voir une forme de contrôle des femmes, qui réduit l'expérience d'une grossesse et d'un accouchement à moindre risque à quelques variables mesurables. Les infirmières de village, aussi des femmes, sont chargées de mettre en łuvre ce système, ce qui réduit le temps dont elles disposent pour l'information des populations et les visites aux communautés, qui sont leurs tâches principales et la base sur laquelle elles sont évaluées. De plus, dans les zones rurales, elles se heurtent à des obstacles logistiques qui peuvent influencer la qualité des données. Dans un système de santé aux hiérarchies internes rigides et aux écarts de pouvoir, ce système peut devenir davantage un outil de supervision et de suivi que l'instrument d'un système de santé désireux d'apprendre. Il peut aussi conduire à une approche blâmant les victimes (« vous avez manqué deux visites prénatales ») au lieu d'encourager le système de santé à apprendre à améliorer la santé maternelle et infantile. L'article conclut en recommandant des utilisations du système et des données pour s'attaquer aux déterminants sociaux plus larges de la santé, avec les femmes, les agents de santé et les communautés comme partenaires. En 2008 se introdujo un sistema de registro de embarazos en el pueblo rural de Tamil Nadu, en India, el cual ahora se está ampliando. Se recolectarán datos sobre la atención antes, durante y después del parto en mujeres embarazadas y sobre la salud infantil. Esto es visto como una importante intervención en salud pública, justificada por su potencial de garantizar eficiencia en la prestación y utilización de los servicios de salud materna. Sin embargo, desde otra perspectiva, se puede ver como una forma de control sobre las mujeres, que reduce la experiencia de embarazo y parto seguros a unas pocas variables mensurables. La carga de cumplir esta tarea recae sobre las Enfermeras Comunitarias, quienes también son mujeres, lo cual reduce su tiempo para interactuar con las personas y educarlas y para visitar a las comunidades, su principal tarea y la base para evaluarlas. Además, se enfrentan con restricciones logísticas en zonas rurales, que podrían afectar la calidad de los datos. En un sistema de salud con rígidas jerarquías internas y diferenciales de poder, el sistema de registro podría pasar a ser más como una herramienta de supervisión y monitoreo que una herramienta para un sistema de salud en proceso de aprendizaje. Asimismo, podría provocar la tendencia de culpar a la víctima ("faltó a dos consultas de atención prenatal") en vez de ayudar al sistema de salud a aprender a mejorar los servicios de salud materno-infantil. Se concluye el artículo con recomendaciones sobre cómo utilizar el sistema y los datos para enfrentar los determinantes sociales de la salud, con las mujeres, profesionales de la salud y comunidades como entidades aliadas en el proceso. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The struggle for reproductive self-determination has specific significance for women and girls in India, where a maternal death occurs every five minutes. This paper analyses the role litigation played in seeking redress for violations of the reproductive rights of Shanti Devi, who died in childbirth in 2010 in Haryana state, and some of the socio-economic, cultural, political and legal factors involved. It provides a brief overview of India's national and international obligations with regard to maternal health, and through the lens of the litigation in Shanti Devi's case, it examines how the government failed to protect, respect and fulfill her right to life and health. Litigation can be used to ensure accountability in further cases by building on case law, informing communities about these decisions and their rights, and holding government accountable at local, state and central level. Litigation also has limits, most importantly due to people's lack of awareness of their rights and entitlements, the lack of government outreach programmes informing them of these, and the lack of accountability mechanisms within health programmes when they are not transparent or functioning effectively. Thus, although constitutional justice is an important tool for democratic progress and social change, social justice will only be achieved through broader social struggle. La lutte pour l'autodétermination génésique revêt une importance particulière pour les femmes et les filles en Inde, où un décès maternel se produit toutes les cinq minutes. Cet article analyse le rôle joué par le procès intenté pour demander réparation des violations des droits génésiques de Shanti Devi, morte en couches en 2010 dans l'État d'Haryana, et certains facteurs socio-économiques, culturels, politiques et juridiques en jeu. Il décrit brièvement les obligations nationales et internationales de l'Inde dans le domaine de la santé maternelle, et s'agissant de l'affaire Shanti Devi, il examine comment les autorités ont été incapables de protéger, de respecter et de réaliser le droit à la vie et à la santé de cette femme. Les poursuites peuvent permettre de garantir la responsabilisation dans de nouveaux cas en se fondant sur la jurisprudence, d'informer les communautés de ces décisions et de leurs droits, et de demander des comptes aux autorités locales, étatiques et centrales. L'action en justice a aussi ses limites, en particulier du fait de la méconnaissance de ses droits par la population, de l'absence de programmes officiels de vulgarisation qui informent la population de ces droits et du manque de mécanismes de responsabilisation dans les programmes de santé, quand ils ne sont pas transparents ou ne fonctionnent pas efficacement. Par conséquent, si la justice constitutionnelle est un outil important pour le progrès démocratique et le changement social, seule une lutte sociale élargie apportera la justice sociale. La lucha por la autodeterminación reproductiva tiene un significado específico para las mujeres y niñas en India, donde ocurre una muerte materna cada cinco minutos. En este artículo se analiza el rol que desempeñó el litigio para buscar reparo por violaciones de los derechos reproductivos de Shanti Devi, quien falleció en el parto, en el 2010, en el estado de Haryana, así como algunos de los factores socioeconómicos, culturales, políticos y jurídicos implicados. Se expone un resumen conciso de las obligaciones nacionales e internacionales de la India con respecto a la salud materna, y a través de la lente del litigio en el caso de Shanti Devi, se examina el incumplimiento del gobierno en proteger, respetar y realizar su derecho a la vida y la salud. El litigio se puede utilizar para garantizar responsabilidad en otros casos basándose en jurisprudencia, para informar a las comunidades sobre estas decisiones y sus derechos, y para hacer al gobierno responsable a nivel local, estatal y central. Pero el litigio tiene límites, principalmente debido a que las personas no son conscientes de sus derechos, a la falta de programas gubernamentales de extensión a las comunidades para informarlas de estos derechos, y a la falta de mecanismos de responsabilidad en los programas de salud, cuando no son transparentes o no funcionan eficazmente. Por lo tanto, aunque la justicia constitucional es una herramienta importante para los avances democráticos y el cambio social, la justicia social se alcanzará solo por medio de la lucha social. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were defined in 2001, making poverty the central focus of the global political agenda. In response to MDG targets for health, new funding instruments called Global Health Initiatives were set up to target specific diseases, with an emphasis on "quick win" interventions, in order to show improvements by 2015. In 2005 the UN Millennium Project defined quick wins as simple, proven interventions with "very high potential short-term impact that can be immediately implemented", in contrast to "other interventions which are more complicated and will take a decade of effort or have delayed benefits". Although the terminology has evolved from "quick wins" to "quick impact initiatives" and then to "high impact interventions", the short-termism of the approach remains. This paper examines the merits and limitations of MDG indicators for assessing progress and their relationship to quick impact interventions. It then assesses specific health interventions through both the lens of time and their integration into health care services, and examines the role of health systems strengthening in support of the MDGs. We argue that fast-track interventions promoted by donors and Global Health Initiatives need to be complemented by mid- and long-term strategies, cutting across specific health problems. Implementing the MDGs is more than a process of "money changing hands". Combating poverty needs a radical overhaul of the partnership between rich and poor countries and between rich and poor people within countries. Les objectifs du Millénaire pour le développement (OMD), définis en 2001, ont placé la pauvreté au centre des préoccupations politiques mondiales. En réponse aux OMD de la santé, de nouveaux instruments de financement, appelés initiatives de santé mondiale, ont été créés pour cibler des maladies spécifiques avec des interventions à « gains rapides », afin d'obtenir des améliorations d'ici 2015. En 2005, le Projet Objectifs du Millénaire des Nations Unies a décrit les gains rapides comme des interventions simples et éprouvées avec « un impact potentiel très élevé à court terme et pouvant être appliquées immédiatement », contrairement à « d'autres interventions plus compliquées, qui demanderont dix ans d'efforts ou auront des bienfaits différés ». La terminologie a évolué de « gains rapides » à « initiatives à impact rapide », puis « interventions à fort impact », mais la nature à court terme de l'approche demeure. Cet article examine les mérites et les limites des indicateurs des OMD pour évaluer les progrès et leur lien avec les interventions à impact rapide. Il évalue ensuite des interventions de santé dans la perspective des délais et de leur intégration dans les services de santé, et analyse le rôle du renforcement des systèmes de santé à l'appui des OMD. Nous estimons qu'il faut compléter les interventions à court terme prônées par les donateurs et les initiatives de santé mondiale avec des stratégies à moyen et long terme qui dépasseront les problèmes spécifiques de santé. La réalisation des OMD est davantage qu'un « transfert de fonds ». La lutte contre la pauvreté requiert une refonte radicale du partenariat entre pays riches et pauvres, et entre riches et pauvres à l'intérieur des pays. Los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio (ODM) definidos en 2001, centraron la agenda política mundial en la pobreza. En respuesta a los ODM en salud, se establecieron nuevos mecanismos de financiamiento, llamados Iniciativas Sanitarias Mundiales dirigidas a enfermedades específicas, con énfasis en intervenciones que produzcan resultados positivos rápidos, a fin de mostrar mejoras para el 2015. En 2005 el Proyecto del Milenio de las Naciones Unidas definió resultados positivos rápidos como intervenciones sencillas comprobadas con "un potencial muy alto de impacto a corto plazo que se puede implementar inmediatamente", a diferencia de "otras intervenciones que son más complicadas y requerirán una década de esfuerzos o tendrán beneficios atrasados". Aunque la terminología ha evolucionado de "resultados positivos rápidos" a "iniciativas de rápido impacto" y luego a "intervenciones de gran impacto", aún continúa siendo un enfoque de corto plazo. En este artículo se examinan los méritos y las limitaciones de los indicadores de los ODM para evaluar los avances y su relación con las intervenciones de rápido impacto. Se evalúan determinadas intervenciones en salud a lo largo del tiempo y su integración en los servicios de salud; además, se examina el rol de fortalecer los sistemas de salud para apoyar los ODM. Se arguye que las intervenciones que están en la "vía rápida", promovidas por donantes, y las Iniciativas Sanitarias Mundiales deben ser complementadas por estrategias de medio y largo plazo, que abarquen diversos problemas de salud. Realizar los ODM es más que una "transferencia de fondos". La lucha contra la pobreza requiere una revisión radical de las alianzas entre los países ricos y los pobres y entre ricos y pobres en esos países. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a qualitative study conducted in 2009 of provider and patient perceptions of primary level reproductive health services provided by commune health stations (CHSs), and the implications for Viet Nam's 2011–2020 National Strategy for Reproductive Health Care. In the three provinces of Thai Nguyen, Thua Thien Hue, and Vinh Long, we interviewed the heads of CHSs, held focus group discussions with midwives and women patients, and observed facilities. Half the 30 CHSs visited were in poor physical condition; the rest were newly renovated. However, the model of service delivery was largely unchanged from ten years before. Many appeared to fall short in meeting patient expectations in terms of modern medical equipment and technology, range of drug supplies, and levels of staff expertise. As a result, many women were turning to private doctors and public hospitals, at least in urban areas, or seeking medication from pharmacies. To make CHS clinics sustainable, promotion of access to reproductive health services should be undertaken concurrently with quality improvement. A responsive payment scheme must also be developed to generate revenues. Efforts should be made to reduce the unnecessary use of more costly services from private clinics and higher level public facilities. Cet article présente une étude qualitative réalisée en 2009 sur les perceptions chez les prestataires et les patients des services de santé génésique de niveau primaire assurés par les centres de santé communaux (CSC) et leurs conséquences pour la Stratégie nationale de soins de santé génésique 2011–2020 du Viet Nam. Dans les trois provinces de Thai Nguyen, Thua Thien Hue et Vinh Long, nous avons interrogé les chefs des CSC, organisé des discussions par groupe d'intérêt avec des sages–femmes et des patientes, et observé les installations. La moitié des 30 CSC visités étaient en mauvais état ; les autres venaient d'être rénovés. Néanmoins, lemodèle de prestation de services n'avait presque pas changé depuis dix ans. Beaucoup de CSC ne semblaient pas répondre aux attentes des patientes du point de vue de la modernité de l'équipement médical et de la technologie, du choix de médicaments disponibles et du niveau de compétence du personnel. Beaucoup de femmes s'adressaient donc à des médecins privés et des hôpitaux publics, au moins dans les zones urbaines, ou demandaient des médicaments dans les pharmacies. Pour que les CSC deviennent viables, la promotion de l'accès aux services de santé génésique doit être entreprise conjointement avec l'amélioration de la qualité. Un plan de paiement réactif doit aussi être mis au point pour créer des recettes. Il faut s'efforcer de réduire le recours inutile aux services coûteux de médecins et de centres privés ou d'installations publiques de niveau supérieur. En este artículo se presenta un estudio cualitativo realizado en 2009 de las percepciones del personal de salud y pacientes en cuanto a los servicios de salud reproductiva proporcionados en el primer nivel de atención por estaciones de salud comunitarias (CHS por sus siglas en inglés) y las implicaciones para la Estrategia Nacional de Servicios de Salud Reproductiva en Vietnam, del 2011 al 2020. En las tres provincias de Thai Nguyen, Thua Thien Hue y Vinh Long, entrevistamos la dirección de las CHS, realizamos discusiones en grupos focales con parteras profesionales y mujeres pacientes y observamos las unidades de salud. La mitad de las 30 CHS visitadas se encontraban en malas condiciones físicas; el resto había sido renovado recientemente. Sin embargo, hubo muy pocos cambios en el modelo de prestación de servicios creado diez años atrás. En muchas de las CHS hubo considerable insatisfacción por parte de las pacientes en cuanto al equipo médico moderno y la tecnología, la variedad de medicamentos y los niveles de conocimientos y experiencia del personal. Por consiguiente, muchas mujeres estaban acudiendo a médicos particulares y hospitales públicos, por lo menos en las zonas urbanas, o buscando medicamentos en las farmacias. Para lograr la sostenibilidad de las CHS, se debe promover el acceso a los servicios de salud reproductiva a la vez que se mejora la calidad. Además, se debe elaborar un esquema de pago receptivo para generar ingresos y se deben realizar esfuerzos por reducir el uso innecesario de servicios costosos proporcionados por médicos y clínicas particulares y unidades públicas de nivel superior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper comments on the provision of birthing services in Sichuan and Shanxi Provinces in China within a policy context. The goal was to understand possible unintended and harmful health outcomes for women in the light of international evidence, to better inform practice and policy development. Data were collected from October 2005 to April 2007 in 25 hospitals across 13 counties and one city. Normal and caesarean birth records were audited, observations made of facilities and interviews conducted with officials, administrators, health workers, women who delivered in hospital facilities and women who delivered at home. We argue that in the context of a neo-liberal health economy with poorly developed government regulatory policies, those with the power to pay for maternity care may be vulnerable to a new range of risks to their health from those positioned to make a profit. While poor communities may lack access to basic services, wealthier socio-economic groups may risk an increase in maternal morbidity and mortality through the overuse of avoidable intervention. We recommend a stronger evidence base for hospital maternity services and changes to the role of the State in countering systemic problems. Cet article examine les services de maternité des provinces chinoises du Sichuan et du Shanxi dans un contexte politique. Il s'agissait de cerner d'éventuels effets indésirables pour les femmes à la lumière des données internationales, afin de mieux informer la pratique et la définition des politiques. Les données ont été recueillies d'octobre 2005 à avril 2007 dans 25 hôpitaux de 13 comtés et une ville. Les dossiers des accouchements normaux et par césarienne ont été contrôlés, les équipements et les fonctionnaires ont été observés, des entretiens ont été organisés avec des administrateurs, des agents de santé, des femmes qui avaient accouché à l'hôpital ou à la maison. Dans le contexte d'une économie de santé néolibérale avec des politiques régulatrices gouvernementales mal définies, il apparaît que les individus ayant les moyens de payer des soins de maternité peuvent être vulnérables à un nouvel éventail de risques sanitaires créés par ceux qui souhaitent faire des bénéfices. Alors que les communautés pauvres n'ont parfois pas accès aux services essentiels, les groupes socio-économiques plus aisés risquent de subir une hausse de la morbidité et de la mortalité maternelles en raison du recours excessif à des interventions superflues. Nous recommandons d'appuyer les services hospitaliers de maternité sur une base factuelle plus solide et préconisons de changer le rôle de l'État pour corriger les problèmes systémiques. Este artículo trata de la prestación de servicios de parto en las provincias de Sichuan y Shanxi, en China, en un contexto de políticas. El objetivo era entender posibles resultados de salud imprevistos y peligrosos para las mujeres en vista de la evidencia internacional, con el fin de informar mejor las prácticas y la formulación de políticas. Se recolectaron datos desde octubre de 2005 hasta abril de 2007, en 25 hospitales de 13 condados y una ciudad. Se realizaron auditorías de los registros de partos normales y por cesárea, se observaron los establecimientos de salud y se realizaron entrevistas con funcionarios, administradores, trabajadores de la salud, mujeres que dieron a luz en instalaciones hospitalarias y mujeres que dieron a luz en su hogar. Argumentamos que, en el contexto de una economía de salud neo-liberal con políticas reguladoras gubernamentales mal formuladas, aquéllas con el poder para pagar por atención de maternidad posiblemente sean vulnerables a una nueva gama de riesgos a su salud de aquéllos posicionados para hacer ganancias. Aunque las comunidades pobres carecen de acceso a los servicios fundamentales, es posible que los grupos socioeconómicos más adinerados afronten una tasa más elevada de morbimortalidad materna debido al uso excesivo de intervención evitable. Recomendamos una base de evidencia más sólida para los servicios obstétricos hospitalarios, así como cambios a la función del Estado en contrarrestar los problemas sistémicos. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ultrasound scanning is firmly embedded in antenatal maternity care around the world. This paper reports on a qualitative study carried out in 2003 of 30 Syrian women's perceptions and experiences of routine ultrasound in pregnancy. It was part of a larger study of the experiences of pregnancy and childbirth of 500 women from Damascus and its suburbs who had recently given birth to healthy newborns. The women had had multiple scans during pregnancy and accepted its use uncritically nearly all the time. The scans gave them reassurance that the baby was healthy, the pregnancy was progressing well and allowed them to learn the sex of the baby. The women also reacted positively to the antenatal educational messages that were conveyed using scans. However, we found the excessive use of this technology worrying. We believe private doctors, who attend 80% of pregnant women, use ultrasound primarily to attract women to their clinics and increase their income. We recommend that maternity care in Syria should be better regulated; that women and their doctors should be made aware of the essential components of antenatal care; that national guidelines for antenatal care should be developed and that Syrian women should be empowered to ask questions about pregnancy and childbirth and the care they receive. Partout dans le monde, les échographies font partie intégrante des soins prénatals. Cet article décrit une étude qualitative menée en 2003 sur la perception de 30 Syriennes et leur expérience des échographies de routine pendant la grossesse. Cette recherche faisait partie d'une étude plus large des expériences de la grossesse et de l'accouchement auprès de 500 femmes de Damas et alentours qui avaient récemment accouché d'enfants en bonne santé. Les femmes avaient subi plusieurs échographies pendant leur grossesse et presque toutes les avaient acceptées sans difficulté. Les échographies les rassuraient sur la santé du bébé et l'évolution de leur grossesse et leur permettaient de connaître le sexe du fætus. Les femmes avaient également bien réagi aux messages d'information prénatale transmis à l'aide des ultrasons. Néanmoins, nous jugeons inquiétant l'emploi excessif de cette technologie. Nous pensons que les médecins privés, qui suivent 80% des femmes enceintes, se servent des échographies pour attirer les femmes dans leur cabinet et augmenter leur revenu. Nous recommandons de mieux réglementer les soins maternels, d'informer les femmes et leurs médecins des éléments essentiels des soins prénatals, de préparer des directives nationales sur les soins prénatals et de donner aux Syriennes les moyens de poser des questions sur la grossesse et l'accouchement, et sur les soins qu'elles re§oivent. La ecografía forma parte integral de la atención antenatal a nivel mundial. En este artículo se informa de un estudio cualitativo realizado en 2003 acerca de las percepciones y experiencias de 30 mujeres sirias con relación a la ecografía de rutina durante el embarazo. Fue parte de un estudio más amplio de las experiencias durante el embarazo y el parto de 500 mujeres provenientes de Damasco y sus suburbios, quienes recientemente habían dado a luz a recién nacidos saludables. Habían tenido mãltiples ecografías durante el embarazo y, casi todo el tiempo, aceptaban su uso sin cuestionarlo, ya que éstas les demostraban que el bebé estaba saludable y el embarazo progresando bien, y les permitían conocer el sexo del bebé. También reaccionaron de manera positiva a los mensajes educativos de atención antenatal, que se transmitieron por medio de las ecografías. No obstante, el uso excesivo de esta tecnología es preocupante. Creemos que los médicos particulares, quienes atienden al 80% de las mujeres embarazadas, utilizan la ecografía principalmente para atraer a las mujeres a sus clínicas y aumentar sus ingresos. Recomendamos que se regulen mejor los cuidados de maternidad en Siria; que se conciencie a las mujeres y a sus médicos acerca de los componentes esenciales de la atención antenatal; que se elaboren normas nacionales para la atención antenatal; y que se empodere a las mujeres sirias para que hagan preguntas sobre el embarazo, el parto y la atención que reciben. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Government of India has been providing limited maternal and child health services through its Family Welfare programme, but this system is characterised by weaknesses that include inefficient work schedules; non-availability of functioning equipment; poor contraceptive and drug supplies; poor skills and knowledge of health workers; and poor access to services in villages without health centres. For the new Reproductive and Child Health programme to deliver an even wider range of services, the health system will need to be strengthened and the quality of service delivery improved. This paper describes a seven-year operations research project in Parner block, Ahmednagar district, Maharashtra, India, undertaken by the Foundation for Research in Health Systems in partnership with state and district health administrations. It shows the feasibility of establishing a more efficient system, with a minimum of affordable inputs, that increases the use of services by women. Four critical policy changes were implemented: service delivery in each village was changed from household visits to a clinic base, stringent monitoring mechanisms were put in place, in-service training for health workers was instituted and the range of services was gradually increased. This experience is now being applied more widely, with eventual phasing up to full district and state level. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]