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We developed a thyroid testing panel to assess endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) capacities to bind either the thyroid receptor β (TRβ) or the thyroid hormones transporter transthyretin (TTR). We first stably transfected a human U2OS cell line with TRβ and a luciferase reporter construct to develop the TRβ CALUX® reporter gene assay to assess chemicals' potential to interact with TRβ. Secondly, we combined a TTR-binding assay with the TRβ CALUX (TTR-TRβ CALUX) and optimized the system to evaluate the competitive properties of EDCs towards T4 for TTR binding. Both systems were evaluated with a range of known thyroid-disrupting compounds. The agonistic/antagonistic TRβ CALUX successfully predicted 9/9 and 9/12 test compounds, respectively. The TTR-TRβ CALUX predicted 9/9 compounds and demonstrated competitive activities when analyzing waste water samples. We concluded that the proposed test battery is a promising screening method able to efficiently generate data on thyroid hormone interferences by chemicals., (Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Identification and monitoring of so-called endocrine-disrupting compounds has received ample attention; both the OECD and the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) have designed tiered testing approaches, involving in vitro bioassays to prioritize and partly replace traditional animal experiments. Since the estrogen (ER) and androgen (AR) receptor are frequent targets of endocrine disrupting chemicals, bioassays detecting interaction with these receptors have a high potential to be of use in risk assessment of endocrine active compounds. However, in many bioassays in vivo hepatic metabolism is not accounted for, which hampers extrapolation to the in vivo situation. In the present study, we have developed a metabolic module using rat liver S9 as an add-on to human cell-based reporter gene assays. The method was applied to reporter gene assays for detection of (anti-) estrogens and (anti-) androgens, but can be extended to cell-based reporter gene assays covering a variety of endpoints related to endocrine disruption., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Previously we showed a battery consisting of CALUX transcriptional activation assays, the ReProGlo assay, and the embryonic stem cell test, and zebrafish embryotoxicity assay as 'apical' tests to correctly predict developmental toxicity for 11 out of 12 compounds, and to explain the one false negative [7]. Here we report on applying this battery within the context of grouping and read across, put forward as a potential tool to fill data gaps and avoid animal testing, to distinguish in vivo non- or weak developmental toxicants from potent developmental toxicants within groups of structural analogs. The battery correctly distinguished 2-methylhexanoic acid, monomethyl phthalate, and monobutyltin trichloride as non- or weak developmental toxicants from structurally related developmental toxicants valproic acid, mono-ethylhexyl phthalate, and tributyltin chloride, respectively, and, therefore, holds promise as a biological verification model in grouping and read across approaches. The relevance of toxicokinetic information is indicated., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

There is a great need for alternative testing methods for reproductive toxicants that are practical, fast, cost-effective and easy to interpret. Previously we followed a pragmatic approach using readily available tests, which was successful in predicting reproductive toxicity of chemicals [13]. This initial battery still contained apical tests and is fairly complex and low in its throughput. The current study aimed to simplify this screening battery using a mechanistic approach and a panel of high throughput CALUX reporter gene assays. A mechanistic approach was taken to validate this high throughput test battery. To this end it was challenged with two preselected sets of chemicals addressing two major apical effect classes relevant in reproductive toxicity. We found selectivity in this battery in that 82% of the compounds inducing reproductive organ deformities were predicted correctly, while for compounds inducing neural tube defects this was the case in 47% only. This is consistent with the mechanisms of toxicity covered in the battery. The most informative assays in the battery were ERalpha CALUX to measure estrogenicity and the AR-anti CALUX assay to measure androgen receptor antagonism., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

There is a great need for rapid testing strategies for reproductive toxicity testing, avoiding animal use. The EU Framework program 7 project ChemScreen aimed to fill this gap in a pragmatic manner preferably using validated existing tools and place them in an innovative alternative testing strategy. In our approach we combined knowledge on critical processes affected by reproductive toxicants with knowledge on the mechanistic basis of such effects. We used in silico methods for prescreening chemicals for relevant toxic effects aiming at reduced testing needs. For those chemicals that need testing we have set up an in vitro screening panel that includes mechanistic high throughput methods and lower throughput assays that measure more integrative endpoints. In silico pharmacokinetic modules were developed for rapid exposure predictions via diverse exposure routes. These modules to match in vitro and in vivo exposure levels greatly improved predictivity of the in vitro tests. As a further step, we have generated examples how to predict reproductive toxicity of chemicals using available data. We have executed formal validations of panel constituents and also used more innovative manners to validate the test panel using mechanistic approaches. We are actively engaged in promoting regulatory acceptance of the tools developed as an essential step towards practical application, including case studies for read-across purposes. With this approach, a significant saving in animal use and associated costs seems very feasible., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Studies on reproductive toxicity need high numbers of test animals. Therefore, we investigated whether chemical structural features (SF) in combination with in vitro data on specific adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) may be used for predicting reproductive toxicity of untested chemicals. Using the OECD Toolbox and expert judgment, we identified 89 structure groups for 275 chemicals for which the results of prenatal developmental toxicity or multigeneration studies were present in the Fraunhofer database on Fertility and Developmental Toxicity in experimental animals (FeDTex) database. Likewise, we evaluated 220 chemicals which had been tested in reporter gene assays on endocrine ((anti)estrogenic and (anti)androgenic) properties in the CALUX(®) test battery. There was a large spread of effect levels for substances within the chemical structure groups for both, in vivo and in vitro results. The groups of highest concern (diphenyl derivatives, planar conjugated systems with fused rings, phenols and organophosphates) correlated quite well, however, between the in vivo and in vitro data on estrogenic activity. For the 56 chemicals represented in both databases, lowest effect doses in vivo correlated well with the estrogenic activity in vitro. These results suggest that a panel of assays covering relevant AOPs and data on metabolism and toxicokinetics may allow prediction of relative reproductive or development toxicity potency within the identified chemical structure groups., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The application of alternative methods in developmental and reproductive toxicology is challenging in view of the complexity of mechanisms involved. A battery of complementary test systems may provide a better prediction of developmental and reproductive toxicity than single assays. We tested twelve compounds with varying mechanisms of toxic action in an assay battery including 24 CALUX transcriptional activation assays, mouse cardiac embryonic stem cell test, ReProGlo assay, zebrafish embryotoxicity assay, and two CYP17 and two CYP19 activity assays. The battery correctly detected 11/12 compounds tested, with one false negative occurring, which could be explained by the absence of the specific mechanism of action of this compound in the battery. Toxicokinetic modeling revealed that toxic concentrations were in the range expected from in vivo reproductive toxicity data. This study illustrates added value of combining assays that contain complementary biological processes and mechanisms, increasing predictive value of the battery over individual assays., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

In spite of extensive research in the area over many decades, there is still a shortage of accepted alternative testing methods in reproductive toxicology. Of the variety of alternative methods developed for reproductive toxicity testing not a single one has reached regulatory acceptance. Although various standardized tests have been described, their predictability and applicability domains have so far not satisfactorily been defined. In the near future this situation will only change if new approaches are explored. Current regulatory needs in combination with technological innovations set the scene for rapid progress in this area.

To date there are no validated methods available to test androgenicity or antiandrogenicity in vitro. A problem with testing androgenicity using reporter genes is the possibility by other steroid receptors than androgen receptors to activate the same reporter gene, thereby lowering selectivity. To avoid this we have established a robust and very selective method, the AR CALUX reporter gene assay, to test androgenic and antiandrogenic activity of compounds in vitro. This assay uses a human U2-OS cell line stably transfected with the human androgen receptor and an androgen receptor responsive reporter gene. We optimized protocols to be used in combination with AR CALUX cells and carried out an in house prevalidation. In addition we successfully transferred this assay to another laboratory, leading to comparable test results with a panel of androgen receptor agonists and antagonists. The assay was able to readily rank a range of chemicals on the basis of their EC50 values. The CALUX assay was found to be selective for androgens and seemed not influenced by signaling through other steroid receptors., (Copyright 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Estrogenicity of chemicals has received significant attention and is linked to endocrine-disrupting activities. However, there is a paucity of validated methods to assess estrogenicity in vitro. We have established a robust method to test estrogenic and antiestrogenic activity of compounds in vitro, as an alternative to using animal models such as the uterotrophic assay. To this end we optimized protocols to be used in combination with CALUX reporter gene assays and carried out an in house prevalidation, followed by two rounds of tests to establish transferability. Problems in the initial test with transferability were solved by isolation of a novel cell clone of the ERalpha CALUX line with greatly improved stability and luciferase levels. This cell line proved to be a very suitable and reliable predictor of estrogenicity of chemicals and was able to readily rank a range of chemicals on the basis of their EC50 values., (Copyright 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

ReProTect is a project within the 6th European Framework Program which has developed alternative methods aimed to reduce or replace animal experimentation in the field of reproductive toxicology. In its final year, a ring trial, named the "Feasibility Study", was conducted, in which 10 blinded chemicals with toxicologically well-documented profiles were analyzed by employing a test battery of 14 in vitro assays. EC(50) (half maximal effective concentration) or equivalent endpoints were determined and the test compounds were ranked relative to chemicals previously assayed in the tests of the battery. This comparative analysis together with a weight of evidence approach allowed a robust prediction of adverse effects on fertility and embryonic development of the 10 test chemicals in vivo. In summary, the vast majority of the predictions made based on the in vitro results turned out to be correct when compared to the whole animal data. The procedure used here, a nearest neighbor analysis coupled with a weight of evidence approach, may guide future activities in the field of alternative toxicity testing., (Copyright 2010 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)