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In large measure the authors agree with Tobias and Fletcher's (2012) comments stating that clearer operational definitions of game features are needed to enable research on games and learning. The authors cannot accept that games are a subset of simulations, preferring to identify instances when games and simulations overlap and when they do not. The authors caution that research focused solely on cognitive processes risks missing fundamental environmental dynamics and their rich interactions with the intentional dynamics of situated cognition. The authors point out that their specific review of games and academic achievement is complemented by the broader survey of dependent variables reviewed by Tobias and Fletcher.

A key goal of much educational policy is to help parents become involved in children's academic lives. The focus of such efforts, as well as much of the extant research, has generally been on increasing the extent of parents' involvement. However, factors beyond the extent of parents' involvement may be of import. In this article, the case is made that consideration of the how, whom, and why of parents' involvement in children's academic lives is critical to maximizing its benefits. Evidence is reviewed indicating that how parents become involved determines in large part the success of their involvement. It is argued as well that parents' involvement may matter more for some children than for others. The issue of why parents should become involved is also considered. Implications for future research and interventions are discussed. (Contains 1 table and 1 endnote.)

Best-evidence synthesis was used to review 29 research papers published in English that evaluate the effects of ability grouping on student achievement in secondary schools. Six randomized experiments, 9 matched experiments, and 14 correlational studies were reviewed. Findings do not indicate beneficial effects of ability grouping on achievement. (SLD)

The focus of this paper is on data reflecting the match between teacher-based assessments of students' achievement levels and an objective measure of student learning. These data are treated as relevant to the validity or accuracy of the judgmental measures. The paper begins with a discussion of two contexts in which such judgments are relevant: the teacher decision-making and assessment contexts. The second section presents a review of studies in which data are presented on the match between judgments and test scores. Two types of studies are reviewed. The first represents an indirect test of validity in the sense that there is a discrepancy between the judgmental measure (usually a rating of achievement) and the criterion measure (a score on a standardized achievement test). The second provides a more direct test of validity in that teachers are directly asked to estimate the achievement test performance of their students. On the whole, the results revealed high levels of validity for the teacher-judgment measures. The studies revealed, however, some variability across teachers in accuracy levels and suggested the operation of certain other moderator variables. The paper concludes with a set of recommendations for future research on the judgments and a set of recommendations for improvements in the teacher- assessment process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Identification of general effects for open education is hindered by differences in the implementation of open education programs. This paper identifies seven features of open education programs that may or may not be present Effect size estimates are used to identify more and less effective open education programs from a large sample of studies of the effectiveness of open education. The data are then examined to determine which features differentiate the more effective open education programs from the less effective programs. Programs that are more effective in producing nonachievement outcomes (attitude, creativity, and self concept) are found to be characterized by four features: emphasis on the role of the child in learning, use of diagnostic (rather than norm-referenced) evaluation, individualized instruction, and the presence of manipulative materials. The same features did not differentiate the programs that produced a high level of academic achievement Examination of data from studies that measure both academic achievement and nonachievement outcomes suggests that open education programs are generally not effective in producing both types of outcomes. Identification of general effects for open education is hindered by differences in the implementation of open education programs. This paper identifies seven features of open education programs that may or may not be present Effect size estimates are used to identify more and less effective open education programs from a large sample of studies of the effectiveness of open education. The data are then examined to determine which features differentiate the more effective open education programs from the less effective programs. Programs that are more effective in producing nonachievement outcomes (attitude, creativity, and self concept) are found to be characterized by four features: emphasis on the role of the child in learning, use of diagnostic (rather than norm-referenced) evaluation, individualized instruction, and the presence of manipulative materials. The same features did not differentiate the programs that produced a high level of academic achievement Examination of data from studies that measure both academic achievement and nonachievement outcomes suggests that open education programs are generally not effective in producing both types of outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the potential influence of school reform policies on the high school dropout rate. We summarize a diverse set of reports on American education that recommend increasing academic standards in schools as a means for improving secondary school performance. We also describe our understanding of the processes by which youngsters drop out of school. In light of these diverse literatures, we show that raising standards may have both positive and negative consequences for potential dropouts. On the positive side, raising standards may encourage greater student effort and time on schoolwork, and thus lead to higher levels of achievement. On the negative side, raising standards may increase academic stratification in schools and cause more school failure, with no apparent remedies. We propose an agenda for further research designed to clarify the impact of the higher standards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews research in which the primary focus was directed toward the construct validation of self-concept (SC) within an educational framework. Specifically, studies are included that investigate SC internally, with respect to its general facet (GSC) and academic facet (ASC), and externally, with respect to its relationship with academic achievement (AA). The literature is divided into two broad categories: within-network research and between-network research. Within these divisions, the studies are further classified according to their methodological procedures. It is concluded that SC is a multidimensional construct, having one general facet and several specific facets, one of which is ASC. Although important findings have been noted regarding relations among GSC, ASC, and AA, an overall conceptual model and operational definition of SC have not been established and universally accepted. A number of very recent studies, however, have provided increasing support for the hierarchical model. Although one study has determined causal predominance between SC and AA, the findings are considered tentative. Considerations of definition and conceptualization, together with construct validation techniques, are also presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Efficacy—the individual's perceived expectancy of obtaining valued outcomes through personal effort—appears to yield a variety of important effects in school organizations. Efficacy has been identified as a social psychological antecedent to many individual-level outcomes, such as student performance and teacher effectiveness. Program implementation and evaluation studies also increasingly point to efficacy as a significant determinant of resistance to, or persistence of, organizational interventions. This paper moves from looking at research on individual efficacy as the antecedent to various school outcomes, to the dependent variable linked to characteristics of organizational structure. First, alternative views of the efficacy construct are reviewed, pertinent to varying interpretations of how the same structural feature may differentially influence alternative forms of efficacy. Second, a distinction is made between organizational and performance efficacy. Then, general images of structural determinants of individual efficacy are outlined from existing organizational theory. The paper concludes with specific propositions related to the pattern of interaction between contiguous structural levels which might guide future research and practice on efficacy in school organizations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The paper reviews literature relating to extracurricular participation and adolescent development. Five areas are described: personal-social characteristics, academic achievement, educational aspirations and attainments, participants' roles in activities, and environmental social context. A methodological critique and directions for future research are provided. Participation correlated with higher levels of self-esteem, improved race relations, involvement in political/social activity in young adulthood, academic ability and grades in males, educational aspirations and attainments, feelings of control over one's life, and lower delinquency rates. However, causal relationships between participation and desirable characteristics have not been demonstrated. Students in smaller schools participate in a greater number and variety of extracurricular activities than students in larger schools. Low-ability and lower SES students are more involved in school life in smaller schools. The existing findings justify additional research into the processes by which participation may influence students' lives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper critiques the literature on the relationship between sibling structure and academic abilities and achievement since Cicirelli's (1978) earlier commentary on this topic. Assessed is the extent to which the confluence model, a theoretical explanation of the influence of sibling structure, fits the empirical observations made recently on the association between sibship structure and intellectual development. Since the studies reviewed in general tend to refute the confluence model, alternative interpretations of the impact of sibling structure on academic consequences are presented. Implications for future research are also provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper is a critical review and synthesis of the research on the association between student-faculty informal, noncIass contact and various outcomes of college. Relevant investigations are summarized according to sample characteristics independent and dependent variables, statistical or design controls, and findings. A synthesis of the results indicates that, with the influence of student preenrollment traits held constant, significant positive associations exist between extent and quality of student-faculty informal contact and students' educational aspirations, their altitudes toward college, their academic achievement, intellectual and personal development, and their institutional persistence. Methodological problems and issues in the existing body of evidence arc discussed, and directions for future research are suggested. A conceptual model to guide future inquiry in the area is offered and discussed briefly. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents information on various research papers on the emotionally and socially handicapped. Many behavioral scientists have their turned attention to the area and numerous publications have resulted prescribing social action for the disadvantaged, the delinquent and the disturbed. Majority of publications on this subject have been prescriptions, subjective descriptions, and clinical case studies. In both the areas of major change there is great promise and great need for scientifically responsible research. No specific definition of the emotionally and socially handicapped has been widely accepted and consequently the figures on incidence vary according to the definition employed. An usually accepted but still controversial belief is that emotionally disturbed children as a group are deficient in school skills, particularly in reading. The evidence for the converse of this is that reading-disabled pupils show more maladjustment than pupils making normal progress, but the belief whether disturbed children are also disabled in school skills remains moot.

This article presents a review on several studies related to school marks which applies both to marks given in connection with tests or examinations and to marks given at the end of school term. Studies reported in the previous chapter indicate that teachers vary greatly in their standards of assigning failures. Numerous investigators, Meyer, Dearborn, Gray, Finkelstein, Kelly, Wright and others, have shown that teachers at all levels, elementary school, high school and university, vary greatly in the relative percents of the different marks which they give to their pupils.

Critical thinking (CT), or the ability to engage in purposeful, self-regulatory judgment, is widely recognized as an important, even essential, skill. This article describes an ongoing meta-analysis that summarizes the available empirical evidence on the impact of instruction on the development and enhancement of critical thinking skills and dispositions. We found 117 studies based on 20,698 participants, which yielded 161 effects with an average effect size (g+) of 0.341 and a standard deviation of 0.610. The distribution was highly heterogeneous (Qr = 1,767.86, p <.001). There was, however, little variation due to research design, so we neither separated studies according to their methodological quality nor used any statistical adjustment for the corresponding effect sizes. Type of CT intervention and pedagogical grounding were substantially related to fluctuations in CT effects sizes, together accounting for 32% of the variance. These findings make it clear that improvement in students' CT skills and dispositions cannot be a matter of implicit expectation. As important as the development of CT skills is considered to be, educators must take steps to make CT objectives explicit in courses and also to include them in both preservice and in-service training and faculty development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since Cox and Vargas (1966) introduced their pretest-posttest validity index for criterion-referenced test items, a great number of additions and modifications have followed. All are based on the idea of gain scoring; that is, they are computed from the differences between proportions of pretest and posttest item responses. Although the method is simple and generally considered as the prototype of criterion-referenced item analysis, it has many and serious disadvantages. Some of these go back to the fact that it leads to indices based on a dual test administration- and population-dependent item p values. Others have to do with the global information about the discriminating power that these indices provide, the implicit weighting they suppose, and the meaningless maximization of posttest scores they lead to. Analyzing the pretest-posttest method from a latent trait point of view, it is proposed to replace indices like Cox and Vargas' DPP by an evaluation of the item information function for the mastery score. An empirical study was conducted to compare the differences in item selection between both methods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the conflict between efficiency and equity considerations. The efficiency argument specifically concerns itself with the rate of return to public investment in education. The inequality of measured ability is such that serious class inequalities already exist in terms of who graduates from high school. A continuance of the present system of higher education is socially inefficient and inequitable. Implicit subsidies and the inefficient financial aid process work to the social and private disadvantages of low income groups. Making all public subsidies explicit and based upon need will increase equity but continue the inefficiency of social investment. An adequate program of higher educational finance based on loans makes the question of social benefits irrelevant. Full cost tuition with provision for long term loans will result in a system, both more equitable and more efficient than any present alternative.

This article assesses the application of statistical methods in test construction and evaluation. A number of empirical investigations yielded evidence concerning the effectiveness of various statistical procedures when they are applied to the analysis and evaluation of item and test data. Only those empirical studies have been included that in terms of their design and scope seem to offer significant evidence regarding the applicability of various statistical technics to problems of test construction and evaluation.

This meta-analysis and narrative review synthesizes the literature on classroom goal structures and their relationships with student outcomes, focusing additionally on the ways in which these constructs are operationalized across research studies. Specifically, this study evaluates the relationships between students’ perceptions of mastery and performance classroom goal structures and secondarily of teacher support as related to academic achievement and motivational and psychological outcomes. The findings document that students’ perception of the mastery emphasis of their classrooms is related to a number of positive socio-emotional outcomes and to academic achievement measures and that extrinsically focused classroom goal structures have an overall negative effect on academic achievement. Also, teachers’ socio-emotional and instructional support was found to relate positively to students’ academic achievement, particularly to normed achievement measures rather than grades, as well as to socio-emotional factors including self-efficacy, interest in class, and prosocial behaviors and goals. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Do video games show demonstrable relationships to academic achievement gains when used to support the K-12 curriculum? In a review of literature, we identified 300+ articles whose descriptions related to video games and academic achievement. We found some evidence for the effects of video games on language learning, history, and physical education (specifically exergames), but little support for the academic value of video games in science and math. We summarize the trends for each subject area and supply recommendations for the nascent field of video games research. Many educationally interesting games exist, yet evidence for their impact on student achievement is slim. We recommend separating simulations from games and refocusing the question onto the situated nature of game-player-context interactions, including meta-game social collaborative elements. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Recent randomized experiments have found that seemingly “small” social-psychological interventions in education—that is, brief exercises that target students’ thoughts, feelings, and beliefs in and about school—can lead to large gains in student achievement and sharply reduce achievement gaps even months and years later. These interventions do not teach students academic content but instead target students’ psychology, such as their beliefs that they have the potential to improve their intelligence or that they belong and are valued in school. When social-psychological interventions have lasting effects, it can seem surprising and even “magical,” leading people either to think of them as quick fixes to complicated problems or to consider them unworthy of serious consideration. The present article discourages both responses. It reviews the theoretical basis of several prominent social-psychological interventions and emphasizes that they have lasting effects because they target students’ subjective experiences in school, because they use persuasive yet stealthy methods for conveying psychological ideas, and because they tap into recursive processes present in educational environments. By understanding psychological interventions as powerful but context-dependent tools, educational researchers will be better equipped to take them to scale. This review concludes by discussing challenges to scaling psychological interventions and how these challenges may be overcome. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This review critically examines 15 empirical studies, conducted since the mid-1980s, on the effects of support, guidance, and orientation programs—collectively known as induction—for beginning teachers. Most of the studies reviewed provide empirical support for the claim that support and assistance for beginning teachers have a positive impact on three sets of outcomes: teacher commitment and retention, teacher classroom instructional practices, and student achievement. Of the studies on commitment and retention, most showed that beginning teachers who participated in induction showed positive impacts. For classroom instructional practices, the majority of studies reviewed showed that beginning teachers who participated in some kind of induction performed better at various aspects of teaching, such as keeping students on task, using effective student questioning practices, adjusting classroom activities to meet students’ interests, maintaining a positive classroom atmosphere, and demonstrating successful classroom management. For student achievement, almost all of the studies showed that students of beginning teachers who participated in induction had higher scores, or gains, on academic achievement tests. There were, however, exceptions to this overall pattern—in particular a large randomized controlled trial of induction in a sample of large, urban, low-income schools—which found some significant positive effects on student achievement but no effects on either teacher retention or teachers’ classroom practices. The review closes by attempting to reconcile these contradictory findings and by identifying gaps in the research base and relevant questions that have not been addressed and warrant further research. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

High school exit exams are affecting a growing majority of high school students. Although exit testing polices were enacted with the goal of improving student achievement as well as postsecondary outcomes, they also have the potential for negative effects. To better understand the effects of exit testing policies, in this article the authors systematically review 46 unique studies that pertain to four domains of expected influence: student achievement, graduation, postsecondary outcomes, and school response. The evidence reviewed indicates that exit tests have produced few of the expected benefits and have been associated with costs for the most disadvantaged students. This review suggests policy modifications that may attenuate some of the negative effects. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This meta-analysis examines the effects of vocabulary interventions on pre-K and kindergarten children’s oral language development. The authors quantitatively reviewed 67 studies and 216 effect sizes to better understand the impact of training on word learning. Results indicated an overall effect size of .88, demonstrating, on average, a gain of nearly one standard deviation on vocabulary measures. Moderator analyses reported greater effects for trained adults in providing the treatment, combined pedagogical strategies that included explicit and implicit instruction, and author-created measures compared to standardized measures. Middle- and upper-income at-risk children were significantly more likely to benefit from vocabulary intervention than those students also at risk and poor. These results indicate that although they might improve oral language skills, vocabulary interventions are not sufficiently powerful to close the gap—even in the preschool and kindergarten years. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Attention has been directed toward extended school time as a measure to improve academic achievement. The school year and day length have varied over time and across localities depending on the particular needs of the community. Proponents argue that extending time will have learning and non-academic benefits. Opponents suggest increased time is not guaranteed to lead to more effective instruction and suggest other costs. Despite noted limitations in the research, past reviewers have argued that any positive relation between allocated time and achievement is tentative and instructional quality needs to be addressed first. After a comprehensive search of the literature, 15 empirical studies of various designs conducted since 1985 were found. The literature revealed that (a) designs are generally weak for making causal inferences and (b) outcomes other than achievement are scarcely studied. That said, findings suggest that extending school time can be an effective way to support student learning, particularly (a) for students most at risk of school failure and (b) when considerations are made for how time is used. Of note, the strongest research designs produced the most consistent positive results. Implications for policy and practice are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This systematic review of algebra instructional improvement strategies identified 82 relevant studies with 109 independent effect sizes representing a sample of 22,424 students. Five categories of improvement strategies emerged: technology curricula, nontechnology curricula, instructional strategies, manipulatives, and technology tools. All five of these strategies yielded positive, statistically significant results. Furthermore, the learning focus of these strategies moderated their effects on student achievement. Interventions focusing on the development of conceptual understanding produced an average effect size almost double that of interventions focusing on procedural understanding. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A meta-analysis found that attending full-day (or all-day) kindergarten had a positive association with academic achievement (compared to half-day kindergarten) equal to about one quarter standard deviation at the end of the kindergarten year. But the association disappeared by third grade. Reasons for this fade-out are discussed. Social development measures revealed mixed results. Evidence regarding child independence was inconclusive. Evidence was suggestive of a small positive association between full-day kindergarten and attendance and a more substantial positive association with the child’s self-confidence and ability to work and play with others. However, children may not have as positive an attitude toward school in full-day versus half-day kindergarten and may experience more behavior problems. In general, the research on full-day kindergarten would benefit from future studies that allow strong causal inferences and that include more nonacademic outcomes. The authors suggest that full-day kindergarten should be available to all children but not necessarily universally prescribed. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

A meta-analysis of 69 data sets (N = 125,308) was carried out on studies that simultaneously evaluate the effects of math and verbal achievements on math and verbal self-concepts. As predicted by the internal/external frame of reference (l/E) model, math and verbal achievements were highly correlated overall (. 67), but the correlation between math and verbal self-concepts (. 10) was close to zero. Correlations between math and verbal achievement and correlations between achievements and self-concepts within the domains were more positive when grades instead of standardized test results were used as achievement indicators. A path analysis revealed support for the I/E model, with positive paths from achievement to the corresponding self-concepts (. 61 for math, .49 for verbal) and negative paths from achievement in one subject to self-concept in the other subject (-.21 from math achievement on verbal self-concept, -.27 from verbal achievement to math self-concept). Furthermore, results showed that the I/E model is valid for different age groups, gender groups, and countries. The I/E model did not fit the data when self-efficacy measures were used instead of self-concept measures. These results demonstrate the broad scope of the 1/E model as an adequate description of students' self-evaluation processes as they are influenced by internal and external frames of reference. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review examined 57 post-1990 empirical studies of school size effects on a variety of student and organizational outcomes. The weight of evidence provided by this research clearly favors smaller schools. Students who traditionally struggle at school and students from disadvantaged social and economic backgrounds are the major benefactors of smaller schools. Elementary schools with large proportions of such students should be limited in size to not more than about 300 students; those serving economically and socially heterogeneous or relatively advantaged students should be limited in size to about 500 students. Secondary schools serving exclusively or largely diverse and/or disadvantaged students should be limited in size to about 600 students or fewer, while those secondary schools serving economically and socially heterogeneous or relatively advantaged students should be limited in size to about 1,000 students. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

New emphasis is being placed on the importance of parent involvement in children's education. In a synthesis of research on the effects of parent involvement in homework, a meta-analysis of 14 studies that manipulated parent training for homework involvement reveals that training parents to be involved in their child's homework results in (a) higher rates of homework completion, (b) fewer homework problems, and (c) possibly, improved academic performance among elementary school children. A meta-analysis of 22 samples from 20 studies correlating parent involvement, and achievementrelated outcomes reveals (a) positive associations for elementary school and high school students but a negative association for middle school students, (b) a stronger association for parent rule-setting compared with other involvement strategies, and (c) a negative association for mathematics achievement but a positive association for verbal achievement outcomes. The results suggest that different types of parent involvement in homework have different relationships to achievement and that the type of parent involvement changes as children move through the school grades. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the midst of keen controversies on the impact of high-stakes testing and test-driven external accountability policy, the more balanced and careful selection, interpretation, and use of scientific research evidence are crucial. This article offers a critical synthesis of cross-state causal-comparative and correlational studies that explored the effects of test-driven external account-ability policies on reading and math achievement. A meta-analysis of 76 effect-size estimates from 14 selected studies showed a modestly positive effect on average but no significant effect on the racial achievement gap. Nevertheless, this review calls for further evidence on the policy-outcome linkage, revealing limitations, uncertainties, and inconsistencies in many findings. The author explores variations among the studies in terms of independent and dependent variables, analytical samples and methods, and the reporting of statistical and practical significance. Implications for account-ability policy and research under the No Child Left Behind Act are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Asa Hilliard has left his mark, and his name belongs in the pantheon of esteemed African American scholars, educational researchers, teachers, and activists. Although his work has served as a clarion call for an Afrocentric orientation in psychology and education to address the needs of African American students, his contributions to the field's thinking about educational evaluation date back 30 years and have seldom if ever been noted. For nearly three quarters of a century, issues of fairness and equity have guided and driven the work of African American scholars in educational evaluation. These issues remain uppermost in their minds today as they investigate society's woefully inadequate schools for children from racial minority and/or poor backgrounds. It is within this space that this discourse links the legacy of African American educational researchers and evaluators during the pre-Brown era to Hilliard's later contributions to the field's thinking about educational evaluation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Similar to other Asian American students, Southeast Asian American students are often stereotyped by the popular press as hardworking and high-achieving model minorities. On the other hand, Southeast Asian American youth are also depicted as low-achieving high school dropouts involved in gangs. The realities of academic performance and persistence among Southeast Asian American students are far more complex than either image suggests. This article explores the various explanations for the struggles, successes, and educational experiences of Southeast Asian students. To highlight differences across ethnic groups, we review the literature on each Southeast Asian ethnic group separately and examine the successes and continuing struggles facing first- and second-generation Vietnamese American, Cambodian American, Hmong American, and Lao American students in the United States. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over the past four decades, there have been numerous discussions on student achievement and school failure. Within this time, the debate over the causes and consequences of racial differences in achievement has been at the heart of the nation's social and political life. The author discusses the major developments in achievement research over the past century and examines the foremost explanations given for racial differences in school performance, namely, genetic deficiency, social class and cultural poverty, low teacher expectancy, and student oppositional identity. The article addresses the strengths and limitations of the existing body of work and concludes with directions toward a student-based inquiry approach to achievement research aimed at filling in some of the missing information in the literature. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, research conducted in the United States since 1987 on the effects of homework is summarized. Studies are grouped into four research designs. The authors found that all studies, regardless of type, had design flaws. However, both within and across design types, there was generally consistent evidence for a positive influence of homework on achievement. Studies that reported simple homework-achievement correlations revealed evidence that a stronger correlation existed (a) in Grades 7–12 than in K-6 and (b) when students rather than parents reported time on homework. No strong evidence was found for an association between the homework-achievement link and the outcome measure (grades as opposed to standardized tests) or the subject matter (reading as opposed to math). On the basis of these results and others, the authors suggest future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review critically examines 33 studies on students' epistemological beliefs about mathematics. Five categories were identified: beliefs about mathematics, development of beliefs, effects of beliefs on behavior, domain differences, and changing beliefs. Studies examining beliefs about mathematics revealed consistent patterns of nonavailing beliefs at all educational levels. Mathematics instructional environments were inferred to influence the development of beliefs about mathematics. All studies revealed significant relationships between beliefs and cognition, motivation, and academic achievement. Descriptive studies found relationships between beliefs and learning behaviors. Studies examining domain differences found significant variations in beliefs across disciplines. Studies focusing on changing beliefs were successful, which was attributed to appropriate changes in instructional style. The article concludes with suggestions for future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review considers evidence cited in support of and in opposition to Writing Across the Curriculum (WAC) and Writing in the Disciplines (WID). After defining WAC and WID terms and concepts and reviewing the literature on key developments of the WAC/WID movement, the authors recommend that key terms be defined more precisely and that multimodal learning be adopted more consistently to address varied learning styles. Noting the complexities of affirming student achievement, specifically when success is attributed without qualification to WAC/WID initiatives, the authors question evidence cited in support of WAC/WID goals and pedagogies. They also consider the monetary costs of WAC/WID initiatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small classes in the elementary grades have been shown to boost students' academic performance. However, researchers continue to seek a consistent, integrated explanation of "why" small classes have positive effects. This article forwards the hypothesis that when class sizes are reduced, major changes occur in students' engagement in the classroom. Engagement is composed of "learning behavior" and pro- and antisocial behavior. Both are highly related to academic performance. We first review research on the relationship between class size and student engagement. Second, we review sociological and psychological theory about the behavior of individuals in groups to explain how student behavior can be affected by changes in class size. Both theory and empirical findings support our hypothesis, although additional research is required. High-priority questions needing further research are identified in the conclusion. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Presents information on a study which examined the relationship between student achievement gains and teacher characteristics. Methodology of the study; Results and discussion; Implications for further research.

Presents a study that investigated the impact of school competition on educational outcomes in the U.S. Impact of competition on academic achievement outcomes, such as test scores; Effect of competition on other measures of schooling qualities, including graduation rates; Correlation between competition and educational efficiency.

Presents a study that examined the influence of local school boards on students' academic achievement in the U.S. History of school boards; Analysis of school board and educational governance reforms; Characteristics of effective school boards.

Focuses on a study that reviewed research about students' sense of acceptance and belongingness within the school community. Procedures and methodology; Significance and manifestations on the need for belongingness; Association of peer acceptance with academic achievement; Peer relationship and sense of community among students.

Examines several developments in interests and goals, two motivational variables that impact the academic performance of individuals. Developmental patterns of individual and situational interest; Situational interest as a motivator of school learning; Relationship between interest and intrinsic motivation.