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A two-color pyrometer is presented that enables detection of a temperature rise with temporal resolution of 17.5 ns. It is geared toward extreme environments where fast electrical electron pulses or currents may push the temperature of a metal surface to melt on a 100 ns time scale. The developed pyrometer, which utilizes an internal gain of 100x, has been tested for SS304 surfaces subjected to an intense electron beam in vacuum. The two-color pyrometer is calibrated using a quasi-calibration method by heating a graphite disk and measuring this temperature with a FLIR TG297 thermal camera. The quasi-calibration method supports the pyrometer to be within 3% accuracy of absolute temperature. The measured temporal temperature profile of the SS304 surface was derived from the pyrometer output data through a detailed gray-body analysis utilizing empirical emissivity data from publicly available literature., (© 2025 Author(s). Published under an exclusive license by AIP Publishing.)

Rectangular waveguides are susceptible to avalanche-style breakdown via the multipactor phenomenon. The growth in secondary electron density produced via multipactor can damage and destroy RF components. A pulse-adjustable, hard-switched modulator powering an X-band magnetron was utilized to drive a modular experimental setup that enables testing different surface geometries and coatings. Power measurements, taken via diodes, and phase measurements, facilitated via a double-balanced mixer, were integrated into the overall apparatus enabling multipactor detection with high sensitivity and nanosecond temporal resolution. The utilized 150 kW peak microwave source with 2.5 μs pulse width and 100 Hz repetition frequency allows for threshold testing without the need for initial electron seeding. This paper includes the initial results of surface conditioning of the test multipactor gap via electron bombardment., (© 2023 Author(s). Published under an exclusive license by AIP Publishing.)

A remote-operated apparatus for testing the detonation sensitivity of energetic materials is detailed. Using an air ram and rotating disk, the normal force and transverse velocity of the impact plane are controlled independently, enabling the exploration of varying impact conditions over a wide parameter space. A microcontroller local to the apparatus is used to automate apparatus operation and ensure temporal alignment of the impacting ram head with the rotating disk. Calculation of the firing parameters and issuing of operational commands are handled by a remote computer and relayed to the local microcontroller for execution at the hardware level. Impact forces are taken from fast strain measurements obtained from gauges incorporated into the ram head. Infrared imaging of explosive samples provides insight into the peak thermal temperatures experienced at the sample surface during the impact event.

Apparatus which is used to directly observe electrons in microwave vacuum components was designed and implemented into a WR-284 like waveguide operated at 2.85 GHz with up to approx. 1 MW power. To generate desired electric field levels for driving secondary emission, the waveguide structure is manipulated by reducing the test section height to 6 mm from the standard WR-284 rectangular waveguide height of 34 mm. Both test and standard sections were operated in the dominant TE 10 mode. A 1 mm aperture was cut into the broadside wall of the waveguide section enabling a portion of electrons in the waveguide to enter a properly biased electron multiplier tube mounted atop of the test section. Waveforms are presented showing the direct measurement of electrons, providing a local detection method with nanosecond temporal resolution. Future work will incorporate the test setup for multipactor studies.

A software controllable system which generates and transmits user defined RF signals is discussed. The system is implemented with multiple, modular transmitting channels that allow the user to easily replace parts such as amplifiers or antennas. Each channel is comprised of a data pattern generator (DPG), a digital to analog converter (DAC), a power amplifier, and a transmitting antenna. All channels are controlled through a host PC and synchronized through a master clock signal provided to each DAC by an external clock source. Signals to be transmitted are generated through the DPG control software on the PC or can be created by the user in a numerical computing environment. Three experiments are discussed using a two- and four-channel antenna array incorporating Chebyshev tapered TEM horn antennas. Transmitting distinct sets of nonperiodic bipolar impulses through each of the antennas in the array enabled synthesizing a sinusoidal signal of specific frequency in free space. Opposite to the standard phased array approach, each antenna radiates a distinctly different signal rather than the same signal simply phase shifted. The presented approach may be employed as a physical layer of encryption dependent on the position of the receiving antenna.

In this paper, a solid-state four element array gyromagnetic nonlinear transmission line high power microwave system is presented as well as a detailed description of its subsystems and general output capabilities. This frequency agile S-band source is easily adjusted from 2-4 GHz by way of a DC driven biasing magnetic field and is capable of generating electric fields of 7.8 kV/m at 10 m correlating to 4.2 MW of RF power with pulse repetition frequencies up to 1 kHz. Beam steering of the array at angles of ±16.7° is also demonstrated, and the associated general radiation pattern is detailed.

A stripline gyromagnetic nonlinear transmission line (NLTL) was constructed out of yttrium iron garnet ferrite and tested at charge voltages of 35 kV-55 kV with bias fields ranging from 10 kA/m to 20 kA/m. Typically, high power gyromagnetic NLTLs are constructed in a coaxial geometry. While this approach has many advantages, including a uniform transverse electromagnetic (TEM) mode, simple interconnection between components, and the ability to use oil or pressurized gas as an insulator, the coaxial implementation suffers from complexity of construction, especially when using a solid insulator. By moving to a simpler transmission line geometry, NLTLs can be constructed more easily and arrayed on a single substrate. This work represents a first step in exploring the suitability of various transmission line structures, such as microstrips and coplanar waveguides. The resulting high power microwave (HPM) source operates in ultra high frequency (UHF) band with an average bandwidth of 40.1% and peak rf power from 2 MW to 12.7 MW.

Implementing nonlinear transmission line (NLTL) technology in the design of a high power microwave source has the benefits of producing a comparatively small and lightweight solid-state system where the emission frequency is easily tuned. Usually, smaller in physical size, single NLTLs may produce significantly less power than its vacuum based counterparts. However, combining individual NLTL outputs electrically or in free-space is an attractive solution to achieve greater output power. This paper discusses a method for aligning a four element NLTL antenna array with coaxial geometry using easily adjustable temporal delay lines. These delay lines, sometimes referred to as pulse shock lines or pulse sharpening lines, are placed serially in front of the main NLTL line. The propagation velocity in each delay line is set by the voltage amplitude of an incident pulse as well as the magnetic field bias. Each is adjustable although for the system described in this paper, the voltage is held constant while the bias is changed through applying an external DC magnetic field of varying magnitude. Three different ferrimagnetic materials are placed in the temporal delay line to evaluate which yields the greatest range of electrical delay with the least amount of variability from consecutive shots.

This paper presents the design and operation characteristics of a solid-state high voltage pulse generator. Its primary utilization is aimed at triggering a gaseous spark gap with high repeatability. Specifically, the trigger generator is designed to achieve a risetime on the order of 0.1 kV/ns to trigger the first stage, trigatron spark gap of a 10-stage, 500 kV Marx generator. The major design components are comprised of a 60 W constant current DC-DC converter for high voltage charging, a single 4 kV thyristor, a step-up pulse transformer, and magnetic switch for pulse steepening. A risetime of <30 ns and pulse magnitude of 4 kV is achieved matching the simulated performance of the design.

Gyromagnetic Nonlinear Transmission Lines (NLTLs) generate microwaves through the damped gyromagnetic precession of the magnetic moments in ferrimagnetic material, and are thus utilized as compact, solid-state, frequency agile, high power microwave (HPM) sources. The output frequency of a NLTL can be adjusted by control of the externally applied bias field and incident voltage pulse without physical alteration to the structure of the device. This property provides a frequency tuning capability not seen in many conventional e-beam based HPM sources. The NLTLs developed and tested are mesoband sources capable of generating MW power levels in the L, S, and C bands of the microwave spectrum. For an individual NLTL the output power at a given frequency is determined by several factors including the intrinsic properties of the ferrimagnetic material and the transmission line structure. Hence, if higher power levels are to be achieved, it is necessary to combine the outputs of multiple NLTLs. This can be accomplished in free space using antennas or in a transmission line via a power combiner. Using a bias-field controlled delay, a transient, high voltage, coaxial, three port, power combiner was designed and tested. Experimental results are compared with the results of a transient COMSOL simulation to evaluate combiner performance.

An all solid-state, megawatt-class high power microwave system featuring a silicon carbide (SiC) photoconductive semiconductor switch (PCSS) and a ferrimagnetic-based, coaxial nonlinear transmission line (NLTL) is presented. A 1.62 cm(2), 50 kV 4H-SiC PCSS is hard-switched to produce electrical pulses with 7 ns full width-half max (FWHM) pulse widths at 2 ns risetimes in single shot and burst-mode operation. The PCSS resistance drops to sub-ohm when illuminated with approximately 3 mJ of laser energy at 355 nm (tripled Nd:YAG) in a single pulse. Utilizing a fiber optic based optical delivery system, a laser pulse train of four 7 ns (FWHM) signals was generated at 65 MHz repetition frequency. The resulting electrical pulse train from the PCSS closely follows the optical input and is utilized to feed the NLTL generating microwave pulses with a base microwave-frequency of about 2.1 GHz at 65 MHz pulse repetition frequency (prf). Under typical experimental conditions, the NLTL produces sharpened output risetimes of 120 ps and microwave oscillations at 2-4 GHz that are generated due to damped gyromagnetic precession of the ferrimagnetic material's axially pre-biased magnetic moments. The complete system is discussed in detail with its output matched into 50 Ω, and results covering MHz-prf in burst-mode operation as well as frequency agility in single shot operation are discussed.

The increased popularity of high power microwave systems and the various sources to drive them is the motivation behind the work to be presented. A stand-alone, self-contained explosively driven high power microwave pulsed power system has been designed, built, and tested at Texas Tech University's Center for Pulsed Power and Power Electronics. The system integrates four different sub-units that are composed of a battery driven prime power source utilizing capacitive energy storage, a dual stage helical flux compression generator as the main energy amplification device, an integrated power conditioning system with inductive energy storage including a fast opening electro-explosive switch, and a triode reflex geometry virtual cathode oscillator as the microwave radiating source. This system has displayed a measured electrical source power level of over 5 GW and peak radiated microwaves of about 200 MW. It is contained within a 15 cm diameter housing and measures 2 m in length, giving a housing volume of slightly less than 39 l. The system and its sub-components have been extensively studied, both as integrated and individual units, to further expand on components behavior and operation physics. This report will serve as a detailed design overview of each of the four subcomponents and provide detailed analysis of the overall system performance and benchmarks.