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Motorized mobility is closely linked to liquid fuels such as gasoline and diésel and therefore, to the environment. Besides the problems associated with global warming, the use of these fuels also generates polluting compounds affecting the population health. Among all primary pollutants, particulate matter (PM) less than or equal to 2.5 microns (PM25) in size, is regarded as one of the most dangerous compounds because it can penetrate the region lung gas exchange. The records for the Área Metropolitana del Valle de Aburrá (AMVA) often show that the average levels of air quality were found to be harmful to the health of metropolitan habitants. This is mainly attributed to the high concentrations of PM25 generated by heavy-duty vehicles that use diésel fuel. Although the properties of diesel fuel have a direct effect on breathable PM, there are other strategies influencing both nature and amount of emissions. For example, the improvement of the technological level of the engines and the driving pattern, as well as the incorporation of electric vehicles. This paper shows some considerations in order to propose possible strategies to solve the environmental problem of the city and the country.

Objective: To describe the way in which the Constitutional Court of Colombia has interpreted the use of the writ for the protection of constitutional rights in work-related illnesses. The paper explains in which cases the court has defended the use of this action and the key judicial precedents on the subject., Method: Analysis of a representative sample of the decisions of the Constitutional Court regarding writs for the protection of constitutional rights in work-related illnesses between 1992 and 2014. We coded 58 rulings, providing descriptive statistics and analyzing the main judicial precedents., Results: The Court has assumed a protectionist position in support of workers. In 79.3 % of the cases, the Court revoked the decisions of lower courts and granted the action to employees. The Court has defended that employers cannot dismiss workers who suffered from a labor accident or illness without approval from the labor office; these workers have to be reincorporated and relocated, if needed, in a new working place. The Court has also stated that workers do not have to bear the uncertainty of not knowing which entity should cover their health and economic costs during recovery; health promoting companies (EPS, the Spanish acronym) or occupational risk managers (ARL, the Spanish acronym) should cover these costs while courts have a definite ruling., Discussion: The institutional structure of labor risks in which EPS takes-over sicknesses and accidents from a common origin, and ARL the ones from a labor origin, incentivize EPS and ARL rejection of the services and, therefore, the use of the legal action of writ for the protection of constitutional rights. In spite of the clarity of judicial precedents, the same judicial controversies keep re-emerging, and lower courts continue to fail to comply with the precedents established by the Court.

This paper aims to address the importance of study, introduce and implement the issue of prevention and management of work disability in Colombia. Text structure responses to questions ranging from the current situation of workers and their health in Colombia, from the importance of studying this subject; the approach of the determinants of work disability; its definition, to the challenges settled for different actors in the Sistema Nacional de Seguridad Social involved in the process of prevention, care, rehabilitation, compensation, and return home.

Public health has developed based on multiple approaches, including the guidelines of the health systems, the community or the individuals. This paper intends to identify the conceptual models of public health that arise after analyzing health or disease categories, as well as the level at which social response occurs: the individual or a family, biophysical and social environment; hygienist or preventive mode. Considering that the concept of model is not only a representation of reality, but an ontological position that allows to understand society and the State, all models are part of a theory and converge with other theories to create a framework of analysis. In consequence, three models of the health-disease process are presented. First, the Canadian model that establishes four determinants -lifestyle, environment, biological factors and health services-. Second, the social determinants model of the World Health Organization (WHO) that establishes three determinants based on risk approach: structural, intermediate and proximal. Finally, the historical-social or social determination model, which looks for the roots of social inequalities that affect health. The development of the Colombia Health System has considered these health models. Today, the Comprehensive Health Care Policy, and its Comprehensive Health Care Model, bases its approach within a model of determinants established by the PAHO.

This paper presents an update on the carcinogenic effect of formaldehyde. First, generalities of its chemical composition are considered, followed by the description of some of its uses, both in the industry and in health institutions, as well as an account of the risk to which the general population is exposed, in particular health personnel, as a result of prolonged exposure to this chemical component. Emphasis is placed on the concentration of formaldehyde in everyday life and in the workplace, while the guidelines of decree 1477 of August 5, 2014, issued by the Ministry of Labor of Colombia, on occupational exposure to this chemical are analyzed to demonstrate that this decree does not consider the already known carcinogenic effects of formaldehyde, widely supported by scientific evidence, thus leaving a void for both occupational prevention and labor legislation.

The so-called social determination is a key concept for Latin American Social Medicine (LASM). LASM criticizes epidemiology frequently, mainly because of its reductionist vision and its distance from social reality. This paper makes an opposite analysis, in other words, 21st century epidemiology criticizes LASM, using the disciplinary development in Colombia as an example. The history of Colombian epidemiology is reviewed, noting that it has not had sufficient development and that LASM tends to reject quantitative methods based on the epidemiological practices used four decades ago. Additionally, some developments of the quantitative methods used in epidemiology are reviewed, explaining that many of the limitations indicated by LASM have been overcome. In conclusion, LASM uses social determination as part of its leftist political platform; however, current quantitative methods and the 21st century theoretical developments in epidemiology show a pragmatic superiority, useful for solving current public health issues.

Objective: Structural and social neighbourhood constructs have been developed for studying a neighbourhood's influence on a variety of health outcomes; community surveys are being increasingly used for capturing such information. This paper has proposed a six-fold approach which integrates existing methodologies (i.e. multilevel factor analysis, ecometrics, multilevel spatial multiple membership models and multilevel latent class analysis) for estimating reliable and valid measurement of neighbourhood conditions., Methods: The proposed approach used seven demographic and socio-economic variables reported in a community survey by 20,413 individuals residing in 244 neighbourhoods in Medellin, Colombia, to measure structural neighbourhood conditions., Results: The set of variables reliably measured one neighbourhood construct: the deprivation index; this showed significant variation between neighbourhoods as well as significant spatial clustering across the city., Conclusions: The approach presented here should enable public health researchers to better estimate neighbourhood indicators and may result in more accurate assessment of the relationship between neighbourhood characteristics and individual-level health outcomes.

Objective: Placing central venous catheters is essential when managing critically ill children. This paper was thus aimed at identifying the major complications involved in this and determining the incidence of mechanical and infection-related complications associated with central venous catheterization in critically ill children., Material and Methods: A descriptive study was undertaken between October 2011 and March 2012 of all new central venous catheters inserted in critically ill children. The definition of central venous catheter infection was based on CDC criteria., Results: During the study period 200 central venous catheters were placed, 51 % in male patients, mostly infants; 71 % required mechanical ventilation and 56.5 % medication for hemodynamic support. Respiratory tract infections were the leading diagnosis on admission in 33 % of the cases. Complications were reported in 8.5 % of the children (52 % of these being due to mechanical complication and 48 % to infection). Mechanical complication incidence was 4.5% and eight central venous catheters fulfilled CDC criteria for central line associated blood stream infection (4 % incidence, i.e. 5 per 1,000 catheter/day rate)., Conclusions: Despite some complications arising from its use, central venous catheter placement is a safe procedure. Mechanical and infection incidence associated with central venous catheter placement should be known, not only because it differs from that regarding adult patients but also because this can help to establish preventative measures for reducing such complications and improving the care of critically ill children.

Objective: This paper analyses a study of the current state of occupational assessment of disabled people; it took place in 14 public and private institutions involved in promoting the inclusion of this population in the workforce. The study was aimed at providing definitions, demonstrating the pertinent processes, instruments, professionals, stages of the process and support involved in helping disabled people to become included in the workforce., Methodology: The study involved a group of experts adopting a methodology which designed, implemented and analysed a data collection instrument seeking qualitative and quantitative data concerning target populations, assessment purposes, the instruments used, timing and other relevant factors for programmes aimed at disabled people becoming included in the workforce. The 14 Colombian institutions having most experience regarding this topic participated in the study (the oldest having 40 years' experience and the most recent 8 years in this field)., Results: The results indicated widespread heterogeneity regarding the occupational assessment components explored. It was found that the objectives proposed for each process differed, depending on each institution's philosophy and structure, the model's characteristics and those of the intraprofessional teams. They also highlighted the broad range of instruments and timing (i.e. 1 to 180 days) of sub-processes used as tools for occupational assessment (of the disabled)., Conclusions: These findings constitute a foundation justifying the compilation of a Manual for the Occupational Assessment of Disabled People in Colombia, recognising accumulated cognitive, social and professional capital (i.e. established tradition in this field).

Objective: This paper was aimed at ascertaining the magnitude of disability in the Boyacá Department by establishing its distribution and dependent relationships., Materials and Methods: This was a cross-sectional study which involved using the instrument proposed by DANE for recording, localizing and characterizing disability. The instrument's 89 questions were subjected to univariate and bivariate analysis., Results: A greater prevalence of disability was found amongst females; it was geographically located in scattered rural areas and amongst those having low educational attainment and poor attendance at school. A deficiency in body, hand, arm and leg movements predominated, as did difficulty in walking, running and jumping., Conclusions: There was a statistically significant dependence (calculated by Pearson's chi-square test) between disability and social, cultural and biological factors.

Tuberculosis (TB) and the acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) are closely related diseases because TB is considered one of the opportunistic diseases for AIDS. When investigating the resurgence of TB it is very important epidemiologically to take into account the influence of AIDS prevalence on TB. This paper develops a procedure establishing HIV prevalence in TB for people in Armenia, Quindío, by using a mathematical model. This was done by building two deterministic models and relating them through a linear transfer function model. To parameters involved in these models had to be estimated to relate them; a technique was then built from unbiased estimators of minimum variance and secondary information for the parameters of each disease, taking into account the town's Secretariat of Health's secondary information. The model for Armenia led to concluding that tuberculosis resulted from people who had suffered from tuberculosis 4 periods (trimesters) ago and those sick from AIDS 2 periods ago, including the present. The procedure described in this work was seen to be applicable to the pathologies to which it is related.

Objectives: Contributing towards improving knowledge about access to health services in Colombia following health-sector reform, highlighting the main results and gaps in research., Methods: Original papers were systematically reviewed through a comprehensive search and analysis of original papers published between 1994 and 2009. After selection criteria had been applied, 27 papers were included in the review. Analysis was based on Aday Aday & Andersen and Gold's theoretical frameworks, distinguishing between potential and actual healthcare access and considering the characteristics of the population, health services and insurers influencing service use., Results: There was little explanatory analysis of service use applying determinant models; this was also partial (limited to geographical areas, diseases or specific groups). Likewise, only a few studies analysed contextual factors influencing service use (health policies and health providers and insures) or social actors' perspectives. The available studies did not seem to indicate increased actual access (except for subsidised system users) but, on the contrary the existence of barriers relating to population (insurance coverage, income and education) and health service factors (geographic and organizational accessibility and quality of care)., Conclusions: This review led to identifying important limitations in the analysis of healthcare access in Colombia and highlighted the need for further research on actual access and the better incorporation of context variables and actors perspectives in understanding the impact of reform on health service use.

The emergence of a modern state in Colombia and the centralization of political and administrative power in Bogotá began to take shape during the latter decades of the nineteenth century. The state had a central role within the overarching modernisation discourse that sought to create a common national identity. One of the tasks assigned to the state by the national project was that of implementing policy for regulating public health and strengthening social control institutions. Such objectives should be analyzed as part of larger political centralization processes and the desire to create "ideal" citizens. Public health and sanitary campaigns implemented by government officials during this period targeted vice, immorality, illness and ignorance under the umbrella of social reform programmes. Government officials, hygienists and medical doctors continually placed emphasis on eradicating or regulating alcoholism and tuberculosis from 1910 to 1925, with the hopes of avoiding a national crisis. This paper examines how alcoholism and tuberculosis became central themes in the fears expressed by Colombia's ruling class at the time regarding the broader social decay of the nation. As intellectuals and public officials sought solutions to these ills, their explanations alluded to the disintegration of morality and values and the degenerative effects of vice, addiction and unsanitary conditions.

Mycotoxins have become a worldwide problem due to their high incidence and levels of occurrence in human food and animal feed. The conditions for colonising substrates by mycotoxigenic fungus and later contamination by mycotoxins play an important role in surveillance and control strategies. The main mycotoxigenic funguses are the Aspergillus spp., Penicillium spp. and Fusarium spp genera, the main mycotoxins of interest for human health being aflatoxins, trichothecenes, ochratoxin A, fumonisins and zearalenone. These mycotoxins' toxic action mechanisms constitute a risk for both human and animal health, causing diseases in both populations. The situation in Colombia is complex due to the lack of research having been carried out; the few studies made to date have demonstrated the high levels of contamination of food and feed in the country. This paper discusses mycotoxins' potential risk to public health, the difficulties involved in diagnosis and legislation and suggests policy implications for food safety.

Objective: Analysing scientific production related to health research between 1993 to 2003 in Colombia to generate information allowing a more focused investment in public health research., Methods: Bibliometric indicators were used to analyse scientific production registered in MEDLINE and LILACS. Trends in the number of publications per year were analysed, as well as publications per research area, research centres and journal characteristics., Results: Health research production in Colombia is mainly published in international journals. Most published papers are linked to basic biomedical research overshadowing other areas of health research such as clinical or public health research. Universities are the main entities producing knowledge re health and their participation has increased during the last few years., Conclusions: Colombian health research production has increased during the last few years as shown by the increased numbers of Colombian papers in MEDLINE and LILACS during the period being studied. However, this production is still lower than that of other Latin American countries having similar socioeconomic and demographic conditions.

Writing has dramatically evolved in the world; however, qualification of scientific production in Colombia has not, including the improper use of decree 1444/93 and 1279/02. The last of these decrees authorized Colciencias, the Colombian government institute created to support scientific research in Colombia, to establish rules for its implementation. Colciencias decided to evaluate scientific papers produced in Colombia based on the non-scientific method of the "impact factor", and considered that citations in MEDLINE/PubMed and PsylNFO were second line publications thus violating Colombian law. This affects not only the progress of scientific research in Colombia but also researchers' income and puts Colombia's scientific journals and publications at great disadvantage. Scientific papers indexed in qualified databases such as MEDLINE/PubMed must be judged according to law in order to prevent further injuries to the developing Colombian scientific production.

Objective: Child labor in marketplaces has not been sufficiently studied. It is present even in developed countries and it has been associated with problems in the physical, psychological, emotional and social development of children. This paper aims at determining the number of children working in the largest marketplace in the country and the risk factors to which they are exposed., Methodology: Children working in the marketplace were counted and classified by gender and occupation. Working places were analyzed under Fine's professional risk plan., Results: 376 children were found, 318 boys and 58 girls. 30% were carrying loads, 42% were selling merchandise, and 28% were doing minor jobs or accompanying relatives. The risk factors related with their personal security have the greatest danger level. They are followed by the ergonomic, psychosocial and biological factors., Conclusions: The risk factors affecting children's health the most in the short term are those related to personal security. They include vehicle traffic, inadequate materials storage that can be dangerous, and the physical burden that they have to suffer. According to the professional risk factors plan, this is a dangerous job for children. Child labor in marketplaces shall be regulated and the carrying of heavy loads prohibited.

The Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point system (HACCP), recommended by different international organizations as the Codex Alimentarius Commission, the World Trade Organization (WTO), the International Office of Epizootics (OIE) and the International Convention for Vegetables Protection (ICPV) amongst others, contributes to ensuring the innocuity of food along the agro-alimentary chain and requires of Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) for its implementation, GMP's which are legislated in most countries. Since 1997, Colombia has set rules and legislation for application of HACCP system in agreement with international standards. This paper discusses the potential and difficulties of the legislation enforcement and suggests some policy implications towards food safety.

Violence is a priority problem in Colombia. Although violence has been traditionally approached from the perspectives of law and order, the tools of public health may also be used to contribute to solving this problem. Public health proposes a four step approach to prevent health problems: (1) defining the problem, (2) identifying its causes, (3) developing and evaluating interventions, and (4) disseminating effective interventions for wide-scale implementation. This paper describes how these methods were used to approach this problem in the city of Medellín.

The Free Trade Area of the Americas-FTAA, which will be implemented in 2005, is the closest expression of economic globalization we will have. In this paper the debate about the neo liberal tendency of globalization is considered: on one side are the defendants of trade, competition and market liberalization; on the other side, those who claim for global social justice, for an alternative globalization, for reaching the ideal of justice in the planet, seriously affected by the free trade agreements, in the absence of a global political power capable of distributing richness. The debate permanently animates this essay on the FTAA which starts with the government proposals and the scope that the interventions of the U.S.A. and the trans-nationals have on the decisions of our countries, besides pointing out to the negative effects that the North American Free Trade Agreement-NAFTA has had on health. Most of the affirmations on the FTAA and its impact on health are derived from its analysis and the new relationships imposed on world trade through organisms as the World Trade Organization-WTO.