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Fungi normally originate from the environment that surrounds us, and appear to be harmless until inhaled or ingestion of spores occurs. A pathogenic fungus may lead to infection. People who are at risk of acquiring fungal infection are those living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), cancer, receiving immunosuppressant therapy, neonates and those of advanced age. The management of superficial fungal infections is mainly topical, with agents including terbinafine, miconazole and ketoconazole. Oral treatment includes griseofulvin and fluconazole. Invasive fungal infections are difficult to treat, and are managed with agents including the azoles, echinocandins and amphotericin B. This paper provides a general overview of the management of fungus infections. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are a common occurrence in paediatrics. UTIs present in children as fever, anorexia, vomiting, lethargy and dysuria. Approximately 80% of the time, Escherichia coli is the causative bacteria in paediatrics, however, fungal UTI caused by Candida species can occur in premature infants. With an estimated 150 million UTIs occurring worldwide annually, this paper aims to establish the ideal management of urinary tract infections in paediatrics. Clinical signs and symptoms of UTI in paediatrics are dependent on age of the child. Neonates (0-27 days old) present with sepsis, vomiting, fever, and prolonged jaundice, while school aged children present with symptoms similar to adults such as dysuria and urgency. Diagnosis of a UTI can be done by using a urine dipstick or using the midstream clean catch method in toilet trained children, and using the transurethral catheterisation or suprapubic aspiration method for infants and young children. In the wake of antibiotic resistance, choosing the best anti-microbial agent for treatment is imperative. Whilst asymptomatic bacteriuria does not require antibiotic treatment, amoxicillin and clavulanic acid combination, cephalexin, cefixime and cefpodoxime are the preferred oral antibiotics, provided there are no known allergies. Ceftriaxone, ampicillin, cefotaxime and gentamycin are the recommended parenteral antibiotics, provided age, allergic status and renal function are considered prior to use. Careful consideration needs to be given before using prophylaxis in UTIs and should be reserved for extreme cases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sport injuries and muscle pain can occur as a result of engagement in exercise and or organised sporting activities. These injuries affect all age groups and gender. The most common types of sporting activities known to cause these injuries include jogging, cycling, volley ball, swimming and heavy weight lifting. Lack of warming-up before participating in sporting activity, overtraining and/or excessive exposure to these physical activities may increase the risk of injury. These factors are categorised as extrinsic factors. Intrinsic factors that may lead to sport injuries or may precipitate these injuries are age, previous injuries and level of flexibility. The most common type of injuries seen are sprains and strains. These injuries are accompanied by pain, swelling and redness of the injured area. Nonpharmacological and pharmacological management is available for the effective management of these injuries. Pain may vary from mild to severe depending on the severity of injury. These varying types of pain can be managed optimally using non-narcotics, such as paracetamol, and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory (NSAIDs), like ibuprofen. Topical therapies of NSAIDs such as ibuprofen, diclofenac and flurbiprofen are often highly effective for managing sports-related muscle sprains and strains. When pain is categorised as moderate to severe, narcotics may be prescribed and administered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Influenza, hay fever and sinusitis are all very different upper respiratory tract syndromes that share very similar symptoms. "Flu" is caused by the influenza virus and usually presents with headaches, myalgia, fever and body aches. Hay fever is an allergic response of the body to a trigger, more often treated by removal of the trigger. There is no place for antibiotic usage in flu or hay fever,there is no clinical evidence to suggest that using antibiotics alters the course of the disease or prevents secondary infection. Treatment is mainly symptomatic and includes many over-the-counter medicines, antivirals and herbal treatments. On the other hand, sinusitis is a common inflammatory condition defined by persistent symptomatic inflammation of the sinonasal cavities lasting from less than four weeks to longer than three months. Either a virus or bacteria may cause sinusitis. Appropriate use of medical therapies, including antibiotics for sinusitis is necessary to optimise patient quality of life and daily functioning and minimise the risk of acute inflammatory exacerbations. Patients often present at the pharmacy with complaints of "flu". However, in many instances, symptoms may be confused with those of an allergy or sinusitis. It is important to know and understand the difference between influenza and allergies such as hay fever and sinusitis, in order to ensure correct diagnosis and offer appropriate therapeutic approaches. This article will review the clinical manifestations of influenza, allergic rhinitis (hay fever) and sinusitis, and highlight the differences between these three illnesses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Probiotics have become well-known and widely-used, especially as supplements or add-on therapy in the prevention and management of antibiotic-associated diarrhoea. Very often, however, the beneficial action and correct use of probiotics may either be seriously misunderstood or not acknowledged at all. This article provides an overview of prebiotics, probiotics and synbiotics, including their mechanisms of action, clinical applications and available products on the local market. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease that causes hyperresponsiveness of the bronchial tree, with reversible airflow obstruction. The condition places a significant burden on our healthcare system. Chronic asthma can cause remodelling of the airway. Patients suffering from asthma should be aware of the signs and symptoms thereof, as well as the factors that can precipitate an asthmatic attack. Asthma is a chronic inflammatory disease; the diagnosis of asthma is based on identifying both a characteristic pattern of respiratory symptoms and variable expiratory airflow limitation. Treatment is based on how the patient presents and includes bronchodilators, inhaled corticosteroids and mast cell stabilisers. This article provides an overview on the diagnosis, characterisation and treatment of asthma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rotavirus disease is known to be the most important cause of severe gastroenteritis in children worldwide. It affects nearly all children by the age of five years. Transmission of the virus occurs mainly through the faecal-oral route. Complications that are associated with rotavirus infection include malnutrition and dehydration. These may have a fatal outcome. Vaccination against rotavirus disease is the most efficient way to protect children against rotavirus infection and can save many lives. Primarily, treatment is aimed at rehydration to replace fluid and electrolyte losses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Travelling, especially to international destinations, has increased significantly over the years and is expected to increase even more over the next two decades. As a result, more people are exposed to travel-related risks, influenced by the travel destination, itinerary, duration of the trip, and the medical history of the traveller. With adequate pre-travel planning and a timeous pre-travel risk assessment, measures can be taken to mitigate risks and safeguard the traveller's health. This paper provides an overview of the continuum of travel medicine with a focus on interventions to prevent and manage travel-related infectious diseases, common conditions related to travel as well as specific travel needs and risks. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) (also known as spastic colon) is a chronic condition that affects the large intestine (colon) and seems to be more prevalent among women. It is often associated with cramping, abdominal pain, bloating, flatulence, diarrhoea and/or constipation (depending on which sub-type the patient suffers from). Certain alarm features (e.g. rectal bleeding, nocturnal symptoms and family history of colorectal cancer or inflammatory bowel disease) should be ruled out first before IBS can be diagnosed, following an approach of exclusion. The exact pathogenesis of IBS is not clear, but psychosocial factors, abnormal gastrointestinal motility and visceral hypersensitivity play an important role. Psychological distress such as anxiety and depression have also been linked to IBS and are potentially exacerbated by the patients' impaired quality of life whilst living with the condition. Treatment of IBS is directed towards encouraging physical exercise, advising the patient on dietary modification, providing psychosocial support and alleviating the patients' symptoms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a leading cause of death worldwide. It is a chronic condition which affects the respiratory system and worsens over time. Cigarette smoking and advancing age are the two major risks associated with this disease. It is concerning that the global incidence of this chronic illness is on the rise. Current projections indicate that it will become the third leading cause of death by the year 2020. Inflammatory changes underlie the pathophysiology of COPD. Irreversible damage and progressive narrowing of the air passages follow. COPD is characterised by the progressive loss of lung function. In addition, the Global Initiative for Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease released the latest update on its global strategy for the diagnosis, management, and prevention of COPD in 2015. This article provides an overview of the causative risk factors, underlying disease process, pathophysiological changes, and the classification and management of COPD, including the latest perspectives on this highly prevalent condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gastric pain may be generalised, diffused, specific to the right or left upper quadrant (or both), and may be attributed to a range of possible causes. Types of gastric pain include dyspepsia and epigastric pain. The term "gastric pain" is not frequently encountered in the literature. Therefore, the main focus of this review is on epigastric pain and dyspepsia, both of which are frequently encountered in the clinical setting. For example, it is estimated that dyspepsia affects a quarter of the global population. Several drugs and drug classes are also linked to a range of mechanisms through which the drugs induce mucosal injury in the upper gastrointestinal tract. Therefore, this article provides an overview of the aetiology, classification, risk factors, diagnostic criteria and management strategies aimed at gastric pain, and its two more distinct gastrointestinal-related manifestations, namely epigastric pain and dyspepsia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The common cold and flu are two very different viruses that share very similar symptoms. The common cold is a self-limiting upper respiratory tract infection caused by the rhinovirus, coronavirus or the adenovirus. It usually resolves within 7-10 days. Flu is caused by the influenza virus and usually presents with headaches, myalgia, fever and body aches. There is no place for antibiotic usage in colds and flu and there is no clinical evidence which suggests that using antibiotics alters the course of the disease or prevents secondary infection. Treatment is mainly symptomatic and includes many over-the-counter medicines, antivirals and herbal treatments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]