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Objective. To estimate the smoking and e-cigarette usage prevalence in Mexican adolescent and adult population in 2022. Materials and methods. We used the Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición 2022 to estimate the prevalence of smoking and e-cigarette use, considering sociodemographic variables. Results. The smoking and former smoking prevalence in the adolescent population were 4.6 and 3.7%, while in adults were 19.5 and 17.8%, respectively. Smoking was higher in urban and metropolitan areas, compared to rural ones. Differences by educational level and region of residence were found. The prevalence of e-cigarette usage was 2.6% among adolescents and 1.5% among adults. Conclusion. Smoking remains a serious public health problem in Mexico. Accelerating full implementation of the World Health Organization Framework Convention on Tobacco Control is a priority. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objetivo. Examinar los cambios en la prevalencia de con­sumo de alcohol y tabaco antes y durante la pandemia de Covid-19 en México. Material y métodos. Se utilizaron datos de las Ensanut 2018 y 2020 para adolescentes y adultos y se obtuvieron prevalencias de consumo actual y excesivo de alcohol y de fumadores actuales y exfumadores. Resul­tados. El consumo de alcohol en mujeres incrementó de 33.5% en 2018 a 42.5% en 2020, mientras que en los hom­bres no hubo cambios significativos. En el mismo periodo, la prevalencia de consumo excesivo de alcohol disminuyó de 11.1 a 5.5% en mujeres y de 36.7 a 18.3% en hombres. La prevalencia de mujeres fumadoras disminuyó de 9.5 a 7.2%. En adolescentes, no se encontraron diferencias significativas en la prevalencia de consumo de alcohol y tabaco. Conclusión. El consumo de alcohol y tabaco continúa siendo elevado en adolescentes y adultos mexicanos. Urge la implementación de las medidas SAFER y MPOWER para abatir sinérgicamente estas epidemias.

Objective. To examine the changes in alcohol and tobacco consumption prevalence before and during the Covid-19 pandemic in Mexico. Materials and methods. Data from the Ensanut 2018 and 2020 were used for adolescents and adults, obtaining prevalence of current and excessive alcohol consumption and current and former smokers. Results. Alcohol consumption in women increased from 33.5% in 2018 to 42.5% in 2020. In the same period, the prevalence of excessive alcohol consumption decreased from 11.1 to 5.5% in women and from 36.7 to 18.3% in men. The prevalence of female smokers decreased from 9.5 to 7.2%. In adolescents, we did not find differences in alcohol and tobacco consumption prevalence. Conclusion. Alcohol and tobacco use continues to be high in Mexican adolescents and adults. The implementation of SAFER and MPOWER measures is needed to address the alcohol and tobacco epidemics synergistically. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. To describe the profile and patterns of dual uses (n=954) and exclusive cigarette users (n=2 070) and determine the correlates of more frequent e-cigarette use among dual users and their reasons for e-cigarette use. Materials and methods. An online survey of Mexican adult smokers. Logistic models regressed dual-use (exclusive smoking vs. dual user) on sociodemographic, smoking variables and substance use behaviors. We conducted censorial binomial models to estimate the correlates of frequency of e-cigarette use among dual users. Results. Dual users were younger had higher education (AOR=2.22) and higher levels of smoking dependence (AOR=1.31), preferred cigarettes with flavor capsules (AOR=1.58) and had recently attempted to quit smoking (AOR=1.38). Marijuana use and being daily smokers were correlates of higher frequency of use among dual users. Conclusion. Dual users had a higher risk profile than exclusive smokers, which was even more prominent in dual-users who used e-cigarettes frequently. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. To present the most recent national estimates of lung cancer burden globally in 185 countries and tobacco smoking prevalence (%) by sex. Materials and methods. Estimates of lung cancer incidence and mortality for 2018 were extracted from the Globocan database; observed incidence, from the last volume of Cancer Incidence in Five Continents, and tobacco prevalence, from the World Health Observatory/WHO database. Results. In 2018, over two million new lung cancer cases and 1.7 million deaths were estimated to occur worldwide, representing 14% of the new cancer cases and 20% of the cancer deaths. Incidence rates showed marked variation between countries. Stable or decreasing incidence rates were predominant among males, while among females increasing rates were common. Conclusion. The continuing rise in lung cancer among women reinforces the need for strengthening implementation of the preventive actions committed to by governments in the WHO Framework Convention for Tobacco Control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. To analyze psychosocial factors associated with the decision to smoke in students 13 to 15 years in Mexico City. Materials and methods. Logistic regression models of Youth Tobacco Survey (n=945) and four Focus Groups (GF) in two secondary schools, conducted in 2011-2012, were used. Results. Factors associated with smoking: a) believe that it is safe (OR=2.4, CI95% 1.28-4.7), GF: ability to control over consumption and long-term damage; b) to have at least one smoking parent (OR=1.6, CI95% 1.1-2.3), GF: influence to start/maintain consumption; c) to have friends who smoke (OR=5.0, CI95% 1.9-13.6), GF: influence to experimentation/repeat, schools without rules on prohibition and have access to cigarettes (OR=2.1, CI95% 0.9-4.1). Protective factors: a) believe that it is harmful (OR=0.3, CI95% 0.14-0.65), GF: rejection of cohabitation with smokers; b) communication with family (OR=0.5, CI95% 0.36-0.91), GF: appeal to self-care; c) consider is young for smoking (OR=0.2, CI95% 0.12-0.43), GF: knowledge about damage and risk perception. Conclusion. It is necessary to strengthen positive psychosocial skills and strengthen compliance with youth protection legislation.

Objective. To assesses the statistical association between exposure to tobacco marketing and tobacco consumption among adolescents in South America, by using data from the Global Youth Tobacco Survey. Materials and methods. Using data from the Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS), the exposure to tobacco marketing at the school level was studied from advertising in TV, radio, massive public events and street advertisement. Tobacco behaviour was considered. The total pooled sample used was 134 073 youths from Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Peru, Brazil, Uruguay, Suriname, Colombia, Guyana, Ecuador, Paraguay and Venezuela. Results. The exposure to tobacco marketing is positively and significantly associated to the probability of youths experimenting with tobacco (at least once in their lifetime). For regular smokers, exposure to tobacco marketing is positively and significantly associated to smoking intensity. Conclusions. These results call for the implementation of strong restrictions on tobacco advertisement of various types in South American countries.

Objective. To describe the population that reports to have visited tobacco points of sale (POS) in Argentina and their perception of tobacco advertising. Materials and methods. We used data from the 2013 National Risk Factor Survey. Results. We included 31 167 respondents (96% of the total) who attended a store that sells cigarettes in the previous 30 days. Overall, 54.1% (67.3% of current smokers, 55.1% of former smokers and 49% of non smokers) referred having seen tobacco advertising at the POS. Males (OR=1.2) and current smokers (OR=1.9 vs. non smokers) were more likely to report having seen tobacco advertising at the POS. Those who were exposed to second hand smoke in bars and restaurants (OR=1.2) were also more likely to have seen advertising. We found that younger people (age 18 – 24) were more likely to be exposed (OR=2.8 vs older than 65). Among smokers, those who referred to have seen the advertising were more likely to have tried to quit smoking during the previous year. Conclusions. It is important to regulate advertising at the POS to limit exposure, particularly among young people.

Objective. To identify factors associated with susceptibility, tobacco use and addiction in young people from 13 to 15 years of age, to determine conditions of risk and identify possible correlates to the development of public policies on smoking in Costa Rica. Materials and methods. Information available from the four rounds of the Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS) Costa Rica was used. It was based on a sample size of 11 540 youngsters from public and private schools. Indicators of interest and logistic regression models for smoking, susceptibility and addiction were estimated. Results. The prevalence of current consumption shows a significant decrease over the 14 years of the study (17.3% in 1999 and 5.0% in 2013) and, to a lesser intensity, in the index of smoking susceptibility (19.3% in 1999 and 12.4% in 2013). The proportion of young people with addiction has shown a significant increase in the same period. Conclusions. The conditions that explained the significant reduction in smoking prevalence and less susceptibility must be maintained and deepened to achieve full compliance of the MPower measures.

Objective. To examine the association between tobacco-related risk factors and smoking among third-year dental students in Latin American countries. Materials and methods. Logistic regression models were used to analyze Global Health Professions Student Survey (GHPSS) data. Results. Of 5 605 respondents, 33% smoked and 45% had been exposed to secondhand smoke during the previous month, 34% smoked in school buildings during the past year, and 85% had never received formal training in smoking cessation. Smoking was significantly associated with male sex; Bolivian, Chilean, or Mexican nationality; exposure to secondhand smoke; lacking self-perception of being a "role model" for patients; and not believing that health professionals who smoke are less likely to advise patients to quit smoking. Conclusions. All dental schools should encourage tobacco-free policies and offer cessation services. Cessation training must be incorporated into dental curricula to include dental professionals in the battle against the tobacco epidemic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. To analyze psychosocial factors associated with the decision to smoke in students 13 to 15 years in Mexico City. Materials and methods. Logistic regression models of Youth Tobacco Survey (n=945) and four Focus Groups (GF) in two secondary schools, conducted in 2011-2012, were used. Results. Factors associated with smoking: a) believe that it is safe (OR=2.4, CI95% 1.28-4.7), GF: ability to control over consumption and long-term damage; b) to have at least one smoking parent (OR=1.6, CI95% 1.1-2.3), GF: influence to start/maintain consumption; c) to have friends who smoke (OR=5.0, CI95% 1.9-13.6), GF: influence to experimentation/ repeat, schools without rules on prohibition and have access to cigarettes (OR=2.1, CI95% 0.9-4.1). Protective factors: a) believe that it is harmful (OR=0.3, CI95% 0.14-0.65), GF: rejection of cohabitation with smokers; b) communication with family (OR=0.5, CI95% 0.36-0.91), GF: appeal to self-care; c) consider is young for smoking (OR=0.2, CI95% 0.12-0.43), GF: knowledge about damage and risk perception. Conclusion. It is necessary to strengthen positive psychosocial skills and strengthen compliance with youth protection legislation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. To identify factors associated with susceptibility, tobacco use and addiction in young people from 13 to 15 years of age, to determine conditions of risk and identify possible correlates to the development of public policies on smoking in Costa Rica. Materials and methods. Information available from the four rounds of the Global Youth Tobacco Survey (GYTS) Costa Rica was used. It was based on a sample size of 11 540 youngsters from public and private schools. Indicators of interest and logistic regression models for smoking, susceptibility and addiction were estimated. Results. The prevalence of current consumption shows a significant decrease over the 14 years of the study (17.3% in 1999 and 5.0% in 2013) and, to a lesser intensity, in the index of smoking susceptibility (19.3% in 1999 and 12.4% in 2013). The proportion of young people with addiction has shown a significant increase in the same period. Conclusions. The conditions that explained the significant reduction in smoking prevalence and less susceptibility must be maintained and deepened to achieve full compliance of the MPower measures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. To describe the population that reports to have visited tobacco points of sale (POS) in Argentina and their perception of tobacco advertising. Materials and methods. We used data from the 2013 National Risk Factor Survey. Results. We included 31 167 respondents (96% of the total) who attended a store that sells cigarettes in the previous 30 days. Overall, 54.1% (67.3% of current smokers, 55.1% of former smokers and 49% of non smokers) referred having seen tobacco advertising at the POS. Males (OR=1.2) and current smokers (OR=1.9 vs. non smokers) were more likely to report having seen tobacco advertising at the POS. Those who were exposed to second hand smoke in bars and restaurants (OR=1.2) were also more likely to have seen advertising. We found that younger people (age 18 - 24) were more likely to be exposed (OR=2.8 vs older than 65). Among smokers, those who referred to have seen the advertising were more likely to have tried to quit smoking during the previous year. Conclusions. It is important to regulate advertising at the POS to limit exposure, particularly among young people. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. To analyze successful national smokefree policy implementation in Colombia, a middle income country. Materials and methods. Key informants at the national and local levels were interviewed and news sources and government ministry resolutions were reviewed. Results. Colombia's Ministry of Health coordinated local implementation practices, which were strongest in larger cities with supportive leadership. Nongovernmental organizations provided technical assistance and highlighted noncompliance. Organizations outside Colombia funded some of these efforts. The bar owners' association provided concerted education campaigns. Tobacco interests did not openly challenge implementation. Conclusions. Health organization monitoring, external funding, and hospitality industry support contributed to effective implementation, and could be cultivated in other low and middle income countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. To estimate cigarette demand and to simulate a tax policy targeted to reduce tobacco consumption. Materials and methods. Demand was estimated using a vector error correction model. Simulation exercises present the impact of a tax increase on consumption and revenues. Results. Changes in real income and the real price of cigarettes affect the demand for cigarettes in Argentina. The long term price elasticity is 0.279 (a 10% increase in real prices reduces cigarette consumption by 2.79% per quarter) and the long term income elasticity is 0.411 (a 10% increase in real income raises consumption by 4.11% per quarter). Even in a conservative scenario, simulations show that increasing the price of cigarettes by 100% using excise taxes would maximize revenues and reduce cigarette consumption. Conclusion. There is sufficient room to increase taxes, reducing cigarette consumption, while still increasing tax revenues. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. To examine and compare overall prevalence and time trends in tobacco and alcohol portrayals and brand appearances in youth-rated US and nationally-produced films that were the most successful in Argentina and Mexico from 2004-2012. Materials and methods. Top-grossing nationally produced films from Argentina (n=73), Mexico (n=85) and the US (n=643) were content analyzed. Logistic regression was used to determine differences between Mexican, Argentine and US produced films. Linear regression models assessed significant cross-country differences in the mean number of tobacco and alcohol seconds. Results. Films from Mexico and Argentina were more likely than US films to contain tobacco, (OR=4.2; p<0.001) and (OR=7.2; p<0.001). Alcohol was present in 93% of Argentine, 83% in Mexican and 83% US films. Conclusions. Smoking and alcohol were highly prevalent in nationally produced films. They may have a significant impact and should be targeted by policies to reduce youth exposure to portrayals of risk behaviors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJETIVO: Presentar los resultados de una revisión sistemática de la literatura médica sobre eficacia y seguridad de la consejería para cesación del tabaquismo. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se siguió la metodología ADAPTE buscando guías de práctica clínica (GPC) en Medline, EMBASE, CINAHL, LILACS y Cochrane. Mediante DELBI se seleccionaron GPC con puntaje mayor a 60 en rigor metodológico y aplicabilidad. Se evaluó la cesación a seis meses según proveedor, modelo y formato de consejería. De 925 referencias se seleccionaron cinco GPC que incluyen 44 revisiones sistemáticas y metaanálisis. RESULTADOS La consejería breve por médicos y la intensiva por profesionales capacitados (individual, grupal, telefónica proactiva) son eficaces con incremento en la abstinencia de 2.1 a 17.4%. Únicamente el consejo práctico y la entrevista motivacional tienen eficacia en consejería intensiva. El efecto clínico es pequeño y la duración del efecto incierta. CONCLUSIÓN: Se requieren evaluaciones económicas para su implementación en programas de salud pública.OBJECTIVE: A systematic review on efficacy and safety of smoking cessation counseling was developed. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The ADAPTE methodology was used with a search of Clinical Practice Guidelines (CPG) in Medline, EMBASE, CINAHL, LILACS, and Cochrane. DELBI was used to select CPG with score over 60 in methodological rigor and applicability to the Colombian health system. Smoking cessation rates at 6 months were assessed according to counseling provider, model, and format. In total 5 CPG out of 925 references were selected comprising 44 systematic reviews and metaanalyses. RESULTS: Physician brief counseling and trained health professionals' intensive counseling (individual, group, proactive telephone) are effective with abstinence rates between 2.1% and 17.4%. Only practical counseling and motivational interview were found effective intensive interventions. The clinical effect of smoking cessation counseling is low and long term cessation rates uncertain. CONCLUSION: Cost-effectiveness analyses are recommended for the implementation of counseling in public health programs.

OBJETIVO: Identificar las estrategias empleadas por la industria tabacalera en México para contener tanto la adopción del Convenio Marco para el Control de Tabaco como la implementación adecuada de las políticas que contempla. DISCUSIÓN: La interferencia de la IT en el diseño, adopción e implementación de las políticas de control de tabaco se ha intensificado desde la firma del CMCT. A partir de 1997, las estrategias se adaptaron al cambio político en México. Esta adaptación consistió en identificar los puntos de veto en el desarrollo de las políticas de control de tabaco. CONCLUSIÓN: Las estrategias de interferencia de la industria tabacalera son eficaces en la afectación de las decisiones públicas.OBJECTIVO: To identify tobacco industry´s strategies aimed at containing the full adoption of public health policies established by the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. DISCUSSION: Tobacco industry interference in the design, adoption and implementation of tobacco control policies has intensified since the signing of the FCTC. However, it is back in 1997 when one can trace a shift in tobacco industry strategies, adapting to political change in Mexico. This adaptation has consisted mostly in identifying emerging veto points in the chain of public policy development. CONCLUSION: Tobacco industry´s interfering strategies have success y fully affected Mexican policies.

La exposición a publicidad sobre tabaco está asociada con el inicio en el consumo, particularmente en población joven, por lo que su control es un objetivo clave para reducir la incidencia de tabaquismo. Históricamente, la industria tabacalera ha sido pionera en la utilización de tecnologías de comunicación para posicionarse ante nuevos mercados y mantener la preferencia de los consumidores. Internet y los videojuegos han trascendido el espacio del entretenimiento, convirtiéndose en medios de comunicación masiva con un alto potencial publicitario. El presente artículo hace una revisión de la literatura existente sobre la presencia de tabaco en internet y videojuegos, con la intención de definir líneas de trabajo para desarrollar mecanismos efectivos de regulación y control de la publicidad en estos medios.Exposure to tobacco advertisement is associated with smoking initiation among the youth, its elimination is a key objective to effectively curb the tobacco epidemic. Historically, the tobacco industry has pioneered the use of new communication technologies to keep and expand their market. Nowadays, Internet and video games have transcended the entertainment sphere, becoming significant media for massive communication and providing new opportunities for advertisement. The present essay reviews the existing literature on tobacco presence in the Internet and video games to define research and policy tasks required to develop effective means for tobacco advertisement regulation and control.

OBJETIVO: Determinar en población fumadora el nivel de exposición a la mercadotecnia de la industria tabacalera (IT), a través de diferentes métodos de promocionar sus productos, antes y durante la publicación de la Ley General para el Control del Tabaco (LGCT) en 2008. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Estudio de cohorte en fumadores adultos (n=941 pre-LGCT y n=1 051 post-LGCT) de cuatro ciudades mexicanas. Se realizaron análisis multivariados mediante modelos de ecuaciones de estimación generalizada (GEE). RESULTADOS: Se incrementó el autorreporte de recepción de muestras gratis de cigarros (3.7 a 8.1%), ropa o artículos con marcas o logos (3.6 a 6.4%), haber visto información sobre eventos especiales (1.9 a 4.7%), y publicidad en bares y discotecas para mayores de edad (21.4 a 28%). Se observaron decrementos de publicidad en exteriores (54.7 a 47.2%). CONCLUSIÓN: Es necesaria una política integral con prohibiciones totales de la publicidad y promoción de los productos de tabaco que integre mayor vigilancia y sanciones para lograr la disminución y prevención del consumo de tabaco.OBJECTIVE: To determine in a population-based sample of smokers the level exposure to tobacco industry marketing through different channels before and after their restriction through the General Tobacco Control Law of 2008. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Data were analyzed from a cohort of adult smokers from four Mexican cities who were surveyed in 2007 and 2008. GEE models were estimated for each indicator of advertising and promotion exposure. RESULTS: Increases were found in report of receiving free samples of tobacco (3.7-8.1%), branded clothing (3.6-6.4%), noticing tobacco industry sponsored events (1.9-4.7%) and noticing ads in bars (21.4-28%). Noticing outdoor advertising decreased over this time (54.7 a 47.2%). CONCLUSIONS: Our findings confirm tobacco industry shifting of marketing efforts when advertising and promotion bans are not comprehensive. There is a need to monitor compliance with marketing bans while working to make them comprehensive.

OBJETIVO: Mostrar el efecto de las primeras advertencias sanitarias (AS) con pictogramas en México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Encuesta transversal en una muestra representativa de 1 765 adultos fumadores de Guadalajara, México (2010). Se estimaron modelos logísticos para determinar la asociación entre el reconocimiento de las AS con pictogramas y las variables que indican el impacto de las mismas. RESULTADOS: 58% de la población indicó haber comprado una cajetilla con AS con pictogramas. Estos fumadores expuestos reportaron pensar con mayor frecuencia en los daños que causa fumar (34 contra 25% p=0.003) y pensar en dejar de fumar (23 contra 14% p=0.001). Se observó una mayor aceptación de las AS como medio para comunicar información importante al fumador (93 contra 87% pOBJETIVE: Evaluate the impact of the first pictorial health warning labels (HWLs) on cigarette packs in Mexico. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cross-sectional survey of a representative sample of 1 765 adult smokers from Guadalajara, Mexico, 2010. Logistic regression models were estimated to determine the association between recall of having purchased a pack with a pictorial HWL and psychosocial variables indicating their impact. RESULTS: 58% reported having purchased a pack with one of the pictorial HWLs, and these were considered the exposed population. Exposed smokers reported a greater frequency of thinking about smoking-related risks (34 vs. 25% p=0.003), and thinking about quitting smoking (23 vs. 14% p=0.001). Exposure to pictorial HWLs was also associated with a greater acceptability of HWLs as a means of communicating with smokers (93 vs. 87% p

Health warnings on tobacco products have emerged as a prominent area of tobacco control policy. Regulatory practice has rapidly evolved over the past decade to the point where health warnings on tobacco products continue to set international precedents for their size and comprehensiveness. The current paper provides a general review of current regulatory practices, including physical design features (such as size and location), message content (pictorial vs. text and content "themes), and regulatory considerations such as rotation period and other novel practices.Las advertencias sanitarias en los productos de tabaco han llegado a ser una de las políticas públicas principales para el control del tabaco. A través de la última década las prácticas regulatorias han evolucionado mucho y varios países siguen impulsado cambios regulatorios importantes en términos del tamaño y carácter de las advertencias sanitarias que han implementado. Este ensayo resume las prácticas regulatorias actuales alrededor del mundo, incluyendo las características del diseño físico de la advertencia (es decir, tamaño y ubicación), sus contenidos (temas, pictogramas, textos) y otros factores regulatorios importantes (frecuencia de rotación y otras prácticas innovadoras).

Cerca de dos terceras partes del total de muertes a nivel global son causadas por las enfermedades crónicas no transmisibles. Se han recomendando cinco intervenciones prioritarias para disminuir esta tendencia: 1. Control del tabaco (la más urgente e inmediata), 2. Reducción del consumo de sal, 3. Mejoría en la dieta y actividad física, 4. Reducción del consumo peligroso de alcohol y 5. Acceso a los medicamentos esenciales y la tecnología. En relación con los padecimientos derivados del consumo del tabaco, la OMS reconoce el conflicto fundamental de intereses entre las tabacaleras y la salud pública y sugiere la implementación del Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco de la OMS y las estrategias MPOWER, ya que su completa implementación podría evitar cerca de 5.5 millones de muertes en los siguientes 10 años. Todas estas recomendaciones son viables y factibles de implementar si se consideran la voluntad política de los gobiernos, la infraestructura disponible, la capacidad técnica existente, la participación coordinada de todos los sectores y grupos de interés, la sociedad civil organizada y la colectividad en su conjunto.Nearly two-thirds of all deaths globally are caused by noncommunicable diseases (cardiovascular diseases, cancer, respiratory diseases and diabetes). The UN General Assembly approved Political Declaration of the High-Level Meeting on the Prevention and Control of non communicable diseases and recommending five priority interventions: 1. Tobacco control (the most urgent and immediate), 2. Salt reduction, 3. Improved diet and physical activity, 4 Reduction of hazardous alcohol intake, 5. Access to essential drugs and technologies. The Assembly recognizes the fundamental conflict of interest between tobacco industry and public health and recommends the implementation of WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) and MPOWER strategies. The full implementation of FCTC could prevent 5.5 Million of death in the next 10 years in low and middle income countries. All these recommendations are feasible to implement considering the willingness of Governments, the infrastructure available, the capacity building existing and the participation of all sectors, including civil society and the community as a whole.

The Global Smokefree Partnership has recently prepared a map of smokefree campaigns and policies around the world. It focuses primarily on countries that are parties to the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, but other countries were included. The smokefree status of 172 countries was mapped. Of these countries, 31 (18.0%) have established comprehensive smokefree policies, either nationally or at state or city level - best practice; 25 (14.6%) are planning to implement smokefree policies in 2008 or 2009; and 51(29.6%) are making significant progress with smokefree policies. Only 65 countries (37.8%) have limited or no smokefree polices. A selection of countries representing best practices in smokefree policies or planning to implement smokefree policies in 2008 or 2009 is highlighted. They illustrate the significant global momentum for smokefree policies, the success of established policies, the importance of civil society and the sharing of experience between countries.El Global Smokefree Partnership recién completó un mapa de las campañas para promover políticas de ambientes libres de humo (ALH) a nivel mundial. El mapa se centra en los países Partes al Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco de la OMS, aunque otros países también se incluyen, y documenta el estatus de 172 países en el tema de los ALH. De estos países, 31 (18.0%) tienen políticas comprehensivas de ALH, a nivel nacional, provincial, y/o estatal - mejores prácticas; 25 (14.6%) prevén la implementación de políticas de ALH en 2008 o 2009; y 51 (29.6%) han progresado significativamente con estas políticas. Sólo 65 países (37.8%) no tienen políticas de ALH, o sólo políticas limitadas en este ámbito. Este ensayo destaca una selección de países que representan las mejores prácticas en las políticas de ALH o que prevén la implementación de estas políticas en 2008 o 2009, con tal de ilustrar el movimiento global hacia los ambientes libres de humo; el éxito de las políticas ya establecidas; la importancia de la sociedad civil en este proceso; y el intercambio de experiencias entre países.

El tabaquismo, como la primera causa de muerte prevenible en el mundo, impone la implementación de políticas públicas acordes a la dimensión el problema. El Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco (CMCT) de la Organización Mundial de la Salud establece una guía para este propósito. El solo hecho de haber firmado y ratificado el convenio no garantiza la consecución de los objetivos centrales, su éxito depende del compromiso y de las acciones implementadas por cada uno de los países que lo han adoptado. Es necesaria la construcción de las capacidades necesarias para el desarrollo de políticas sustentables de control del tabaco. La "capacidad nacional" consiste en el desarrollo de recursos humanos expertos y la creación de una estructura de ingeniería organizacional que le dé sustento a los programas sobre los que operará la implementación del tratado. La creación de la Oficina Nacional para el Control del Tabaco (ONCT) permitirá fortalecer las acciones del Gobierno Federal encaminadas a la aplicación de políticas públicas de acuerdo con los lineamientos del CMCT de manera sustentable y permanente. En este ensayo se plantea la importancia de la ONCT para la implementación de políticas públicas para el control del tabaco, las funciones que desempeñará y los objetivos a mediano y largo plazo.Tobacco smoking as the first cause of preventable dead in the world requires the implementation of proper public policies. The WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) sets the basis for this purpose at the national level. But the successful implementation of FCTC depends on a series of actions of every single member of the convention for the development of National Capacity. Building capacity implies the construction of human resources and organizational engineering or "institutional building" in order to enforce and guarantee the Plan of Action for the implementation of FCTC. The creation of the National Office for Tobacco Control of México will allow the enforcement of Mexican government initiatives on implementation of policies for tobacco control, according with FCTC on a sustainable and permanent platform. This essay presents the importance on the office, their main functions and their medium and long term objectives

Se estima la frecuencia y la forma en que los medios de comunicación presentan el tema de tabaco y las políticas públicas para su control. Se recopilaron y analizaron 660 notas sobre tabaco publicadas en 2007 en seis diarios mexicanos. Se observó un gran incremento de notas en el último semestre del año, debido a la discusión de la legislación local y federal. La mayoría de las notas fue a favor del control de tabaco (49%) o neutra al respecto (41%). Los temas más presentes fueron: legislación (36%), el humo de tabaco (28%), economía (24%) y empaquetado (17%). Los actores mencionados fueron: instituciones gubernamentales (24%), legisladores (21%), tabacaleras (18%), y organizaciones no gubernamentales nacionales (7%) e internacionales (8%). Se debe aprovechar la disposición de los medios de comunicación, generalmente a favor, o con una postura neutra, para reallizar actividades de abogacía de las políticas públicas para el control del tabaco.Estimate the frequency and manner in which mass media represent tobacco and tobacco control policies. 660 stories published in six Mexican newspapers during 2007 were content analyzed. The majority of the news stories were published in the last quarter of the year, due to discussion of pending local and federal legislation. The vast majority of the stories were in favor of tobacco control policies (49%) or neutral (41%). The most frequently occurring themes in the stories were: legislation (36%), tobacco smoke (28%), economy (24%), and packaging (17%). Actors mentioned were: governmental institutions (24%), legislators (21%), tobacco industry (18%), and national and international non-governmental organizations (7 and 8%, respectively). Advocacy efforts should take advantage of mass media, which appears generally neutral or in favor of tobacco control policies in Mexico.

Los efectos adversos del tabaquismo sobre la salud han sido ampliamente reconocidos desde tiempo atrás. A pesar de todo, el tabaquismo no parece disminuir, con las inevitables consecuencias sobre la morbilidad y la mortalidad de millones de personas. Tan sólo en este año la OMS calcula que cinco millones de personas morirán por esta causa. En México, 26.2% de la población entre 15 y 65 años fuma con regularidad y el consumo se incrementa entre los jóvenes y las mujeres. La OMS adoptó el Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco, ratificado por México, lo que llevó a la creación de la Ley General para el Control del Tabaco, un importante hito en la política sanitaria mexicana, que próximamente será promulgada y que se espera tendrá un efecto notable en la contención de la epidemia de tabaquismo en el país.Adverse health effects from smoking have been widely known for a long time. Nevertheless, tobacco use does not appear to decrease, and with it the inevitable consequences on morbidity and mortality for millions of people continue. This year alone, the WHO calculates that five million people will die from tobacco use. In Mexico, 26.2% of the population between the ages of 15 and 65 smoke regularly and consumption increases among youth and women. The WHO adopted the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, ratified by Mexico, which brought about the General Law for Tobacco Control, an important milestone in Mexican sanitary policy. This law will soon be in force and is expected to have a notable effect on containing the smoking epidemic in the country.

Conforme ha avanzado la regulación del tabaco en México, el debate público sobre el tema se ha constitucionalizado. El presente ensayo pretende aportar elementos para participar en dicho debate de forma informada. En un primer momento, se exploran los fundamentos constitucionales de la regulación del tabaco en México. Luego, se analizan una a una las principales imputaciones de inconstitucionalidad que se han planteado a fin de cuestionar la validez de la reciente actividad legislativa en materia de regulación del tabaco, concluyendo que ninguna de ellas se sostiene.As tobacco control legislation gains ground, public debate on the matter has come to be cast in constitutional terms. The present essay aims to provide information so as to participate in the debate in an informed manner. First, it explores the constitutional grounding for tobacco control. Then it analizes, one by one, the key arguments put forth to challenge the constitutionality ot tobacco control legislation, reaching the conclusion that none of the challenges holds water.

Recientemente México aprobó una ley federal y otra en la capital del país que prohíben fumar en espacios cerrados. Estas medidas legislativas están en plena concordancia con las acciones propuestas en el Artículo 8 del Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco de la Organización Mundial de la Salud, que México ratificó en 2004. En este ensayo se revisa la evidencia científica que demuestra que la exposición al humo de tabaco causa enfermedades crónicas y agudas en niños y adultos no fumadores. Toda exposición al humo de tabaco es dañina, por lo tanto sólo la creación de espacios 100% libres de humo de tabaco, tal como lo plantean las nuevas leyes, constituye una intervención efectiva para proteger a la población. Este tipo de medidas se asocian con impactos positivos para la salud, como la reducción de la prevalencia de fumadores y del número de cigarrillos fumados diariamente, así como incremento en las tasas de cesación. En este texto, también proveemos evidencia de disminución de síntomas respiratorios agudos y de hospitalizaciones por infarto agudo del miocardio. Los principales argumentos de la industria tabacalera son desmentidos con ejemplos bien documentados de que no hay pérdidas económicas causadas por este tipo de medidas y de que la prohibición de fumar es aceptada por la población. Con las leyes aprobadas, el control del tabaco en México se ha fortalecido y entre los retos futuros están la implementación, evaluación y vigilancia del cumplimiento de la prohibición, así como otras leyes similares en los estados.Recently Mexico passed federal and state-level laws banning smoking in indoor spaces. These actions are totally in accordance with measures proposed in the WHO-FCTC’s article 8, ratified by Mexico in 2004. This essay reviews scientific evidence that secondhand smoke causes both chronic and acute diseases among non smokers, children and adults. There is no safe level of exposure to secondhand smoke, so the only effective intervention to protect Mexican people from such harmful exposure is by promoting 100% smoke free indoor air, as the two new laws do. Total banning of smoking is associated with reduction in smoking prevalence, amount of cigarette smoked per day, and an increase in cessation rates. Reductions in acute respiratory symptoms and hospitalization of acute myocardial infarction have been also reported. Well documented examples show that main tobacco industry arguments against smoke free policy: negative economic impact and lack of support from the public, are unjustified. These two laws strengthen the Mexican tobacco control program. Next steps include their implementation, evaluation, enforcement of compliance and encouragement for similar laws at state level.

Si bien existen estructuras del Estado, que no sólo de gobierno, cuya misión es impulsar y proteger los derechos ciudadanos, es claro que ésta no siempre se cumple cabalmente. Desde la formulación de leyes, políticas públicas, y regulaciones que deben hacer efectivas ambas, y entre todas éstas y su ejecución para asegurar el impacto deseado, existen con frecuencia brechas que terminan por hacerlas inoperantes. El caso de las medidas que a lo largo de muchos años se han establecido para el control del tabaco en México es un claro ejemplo de ello. En efecto, en múltiples ocasiones en el pasado se tomaron medidas de diversa índole que por una u otra razón han sido inefectivas. El postulado central de este ensayo es que desde el diseño de una ley, una política pública, y el logro de su propósito, intervienen necesariamente los fundamentos sobre los cuales se construyó esa política, su pertinencia a las necesidades que le dieron origen y las estructuras que la crean y/o las que deben hacerse responsables no sólo de acatar la ley y de convertirla en una política operativa sino de asegurar que esa operatividad se concrete en logros demostrables en los plazos esperados y con los recursos necesarios. El Consejo de Salubridad General se fortalece y rescata su vocación primigenia para responder como una de las estructuras del Estado que debe contribuir, con otras más, a la articulación de la génesis, formulación y ejecución de políticas públicas para que éstas transiten de un desideratum hacia una realidad de efectos positivos demostrables.Not always public policies for the advocacy of citizen rights meet their goal, among other things, because between their formulation and their implementation there is a lack of appropriate structures to generate, articulate and execute these policies. This has been the case of Mexico regarding the advocacy of the rights of non smokers. Very few has been achieved in this matter in the past. This article lists some of the potential causes of the lack of implementation of public policies. At the same time, explores the highly dynamic nature of the health care system at the present and towards the future. The magnitude of the challenges faced by the health care system requires concerted actions of many actors, not only from the very health care system but also from outside. Thus, public policies have to be considered not just at the governmental level but at the state level. Therefore, the main argument of this paper is that given the need to respond to complex challenges to protect the health of the population and their rights in a very complex context, there is a need to formulate and implement state policies that require the intervention of the appropriate state structures to make sure that the design and execution leads to the expected achievements. One such structure at the state level, among others, is the General Health Council, an organization established in 1841, that was incorporated within the Mexican Constitution in 1917, depending directly from the President of Mexico as Head of State. This Council has been reinforced to improve its assigned role to better participate, along other state structures, in the formulation and implementation of public policies such as those for the advocacy of citizen rights.

Oropharyngeal cancer incidence has recently increased, thereby attracting public attention. Akin to other malignancies of the upper aerodigestive tract, it has been attributed to the carcinogenic effects of tobacco and alcohol use. However, recent evidence shows that a substantial increase in the disease is attributable to the effects of human papillomavirus (HPV). Marked progress has been made in relation to the knowledge of molecular and genetic mechanisms involved in the genesis and progression of these cancers. This has led to the development of new and promising therapies of a more specific and less toxic nature that have prolonged life and improved its quality. However, these therapies have failed to significantly increase the proportion of patients who are cured. To decrease the mortality associated with these neoplasms, it is necessary to adopt public health measures aimed at prevention and early diagnosis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. To evaluate the inter-rater reliability of a data collection instrument to assess the tobacco retail environment in Mexico, after major marketing regulations were implemented. Materials and methods. In 2013, two data collectors independently evaluated 21 stores in two census tracts, through a data collection instrument that assessed the presence of price promotions, whether single cigarettes were sold, the number of visible advertisements, the presence of signage prohibiting the sale of cigarettes to minors, and characteristics of cigarette pack displays. We evaluated the inter-rater reliability of the collected data, through the calculation of metrics such as intraclass correlation coefficient, percent agreement, Cohen's kappa and Krippendorff's alpha. Results. Most measures demonstrated substantial or perfect inter-rater reliability. Conclusions. Our results indicate the potential utility of the data collection instrument for future point-of-sale research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

OBJETIVO: Presentar información obtenida en encuestas y estudios en Estados Unidos de América sobre el hábito de fumar cigarillos, o el uso de cualquier otro producto que contenga tabaco, entre los mexicanos que viven en ese país. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se utilizaron diferentes encuestas o sistemas de información. Cada encuesta o sistema de información tiene su propia metodología y manera de recoger los datos. Las encuestas o sistemas de información utilizados en este informe fueron: la Youth Risk Behavior Survey, 1991-2001, la National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 1999-2001, la National Health Interview Survey, 1978-2001, la Current Population Survey, 1998-1999, las National Vital Statistics, 1999, y el U.S. Census Bureau, 2001. RESULTADOS: En Estados Unidos de América se ha visto una reducción en la prevalencia del uso de cigarillos, tanto en los jóvenes como en los adultos. Como grupo se ha observado una reducción entre quienes indicaron en las encuestas realizadas ser mexicanos o mexico-americanos (ambos grupos combinados). Los mexicanos o mexico-americanos jóvenes y adultos presentan un consumo de cigarrillos menor que los blancos no hispanos o los indios americanos. Sin embargo, esta tasa menor entre los mexicanos y mexico-americanos se explica mayormente por la menor tasa de consumo de cigarillos entre las mujeres mexicanas y mexico-americanas (combinadas). Esto es, mientras que las mujeres mexicano americanas y mexicanas (combinadas) presentan una prevalencia menor de consumo de cigarrillos que las blancas no hispanas, los hombres mexicano americanos y mexicanos (combinados) posiblemente fuman tanto como los blancos no hispanos. En adición, en general, quienes se identifican a sí mismos como mexicano-americanos presentan mayores tasas de consumo de cigarrillos que aquellos que se auto-identifican como mexicanos. Por último, las mujeres mexicanas y mexicano-americanas (combinadas) de un nivel educativo menor son más dadas a fumar durante el embarazo que las mexicanas y mexicano-americanas con una escolaridad más elevada. CONCLUSIONES: Este reporte demuestra diferencias por edad, género, autodefinición (mexicano o mexicano-americano), y nivel educativo en el hábito de fumar entre los mexicanos o descendientes de mexicanos que viven en Estados Unidos de América. Es esencial comprender los cambios demográficos y los patrones y tendencias de consumo de tabaco entre los mexicanos y mexicano-americanos en este país, para poder diseñar e implementar programas de control del tabaquismo que sean eficaces, culturalmente apropiados y diseñados específicamente para los mexicanos y mexicano-americanosOBJECTIVE: To show the information obtained in U.S. surveys and studies on cigarette smoking or other tobacco use in Mexicans residing in the United States. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Different information systems and surveys were used. Those used in the study herein presented include the Youth Risk Behavior Survey, 1991-2001, the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 1999-2001, the National Health Interview Survey, 1978-2001, the Current Population Survey, 1998-1999, The National Health Vital Statistics, 1999, and the U.S. Census Bureau, 2001. RESULTS: A decreased prevalence of cigarette smoking has been observed in the U.S. both in young persons and adults. A decreased prevalence among subjects reporting Mexican and Mexican-American (combined) ethnicity was also noted. Young adults and adults of Mexican or Mexican-American origin smoke cigarettes less frequently than non-Hispanic whites or American Indians. However, this lower rate among Mexicans and Mexican-Americans is due mainly to the lower use of cigarettes among Mexican-American and Mexican women (combined). Although these women have a lower prevalence of cigarette smoking than non-Hispanic white females, among Mexican-American and Mexican males (combined) cigarette smoking may be as common as in non-Hispanic white males. Moreover, those who identify themselves as Mexican-American have higher cigarette use than those who identify themselves as Mexicans. Finally, Mexican and Mexican-American women (combined) of a lower education level are more prone to smoking during pregnancy than females of the same group with a higher education level. CONCLUSIONS: This report shows differences by age, sex, self-definition of ethnicity (Mexican or Mexican-American), and education level, regarding smoking among Mexicans or persons with a Mexican background living in the United States. It is crucial to understand the demographic changes and trends and patterns among Mexicans and Mexican-Americans in the U.S. so as to design and implement smoking control programs that are efficient, culturally sensitive, and designed specifically for Mexicans and Mexican-Americans

Objetivo. Describir las tendencias, durante las pasadas dos décadas, de varios indicadores de tabaquismo y explorar si las políticas de contención de la epidemia de tabaquismo en México, implantadas desde 2004, han tenido ya un impacto favorable hacia 2008. Material y métodos. Se analizan las tendencias de datos comparables sobre la prevalencia de nunca fumadores y de fumadores diarios, utilizando las cinco encuestas nacionales de adicciones realizadas entre 1988 y 2008. En el análisis se incluye a personas entre 18 y 65 años de edad y se realizan ajustes por índice de marginación, edad y sexo. Resultados. Entre 2002 y 2008 aumentó en 19.6% el porcentaje de nunca fumadores y disminuyó 24.8% el porcentaje de fumadores diarios. Estos cambios fueron más importantes en los hombres que en las mujeres, pero en estas últimas se redujo en el mismo periodo en 21.1% el promedio de cigarrillos fumados a diario y se incrementó en 13.9% el porcentaje que había intentado dejar de fumar. La prevalencia de fumadores diarios se ha reducido más aceleradamente desde 2005, lo que coincide con el incremento en los impuestos a los cigarrillos. Conclusiones. Se observa en México, durante las dos últimas décadas, una tendencia al incremento del porcentaje de nunca fumadores y a la reducción del porcentaje de fumadores diarios. A pocos años de haberse implantado en México políticas de control del tabaquismo más efectivas, en particular el incremento en los impuestos al tabaco, se observan ya resultados favorables.Objetive. To describe the changes in several smoking indicators occurred in Mexico over the past two decades and to explore if the tobacco control policies implemented in Mexico, since 2004, show a favorable impact on tobacco consumption by 2008. Materials and Methods. We analyze trends in comparable data on the prevalence of never and daily smokers, using the five National Addiction Surveys conducted between 1988 and 2008. The analysis is restricted to persons aged 18 through 65 years. Data are adjusted for age, sex and marginality index. Results. Between 2002 and 2008 the percentage of never smokers has increased by 19.6% and the percentage of daily smokers has decreased by 24.8%. These changes were more important in men, but in women the average number of cigarettes consumed decreased by 21.1% over the compared period and there was also a 13.9% rise in the percentage of women attempting to quit. Daily smokers prevalence has declined more rapidly since 2005, coincidently with an increase in cigarette taxation. Conclusions. Over the past two decades there has been in Mexico an increase in the percentage of never smokers and a decline in the percentage of daily smokers. A positive impact is observed, few years after the implementation of more effective tobacco control policies in Mexico, notably higher taxation of tobacco products.

"Porque todos respiramos lo mismo" es una campaña en medios masivos de comunicación para promover espacios libres de humo de tabaco (ELHT). Las etapas de diseño fueron: planeación estratégica, investigación formativa, desarrollo de mensajes, plan de medios y evaluación de impacto. Se formó una coalición de actores sociales para su desarrollo. La población blanco fueron fumadores y no fumadores y el objetivo modificar la norma social sobre ELHT. Se utilizaron televisión, radio, prensa y vallas en vía pública. Se corroboró que una gran parte de la defensa de los espacios libres de humo de tabaco depende de los no fumadores. Una limitante en el desarrollo de esta campaña fue el carecer de evidencia del impacto de campañas similares previas, por lo que esta incluyó un componente de evaluación riguroso. La campaña parece haber tenido un impacto social significativo, por lo que se sugiere utilizar estrategias similares para el desarrollo de futuras campañas."Porque todos respiramos lo mismo" is a mass media campaign to promote smoke-free places (SFP). The development stages were: strategic planning; formative research; message development; media plan; and impact evaluation. Development involved formation of a coalition of key actors in various sectors. The target population was smokers and nonsmokers, with the aim of changing social norms around SFP. Nonsmokers were targeted because they comprised the majority and were most likely to appreciate the benefits of SFPs. Campaign materials were aired on television, radio, print and on billboards. One key limitation was the lack of evidence for previous campaigns, which increased the importance of formative research and of including a rigorous evaluation for this one. The campaign evaluation indicates a significant impact, which suggests that future campaigns use similar strategies in their development.

Objetivo. Describir las estrategias de publicidad, mercadeo, y venta productos del tabaco en 12 ciudades de México. Material y métodos. Los puntos de venta de tabaco, a 500mts alrededor de escuelas participantes de la Encuesta de Tabaquismo en Jóvenes (2005-2006), fueron identificados usando formatos observacionales y un Sistema de Información Geográfica en línea. Resultados. En promedio se encontraron 8 establecimientos y 5 puestos de calle alrededor de las 257 escuelas visitadas. 44.4% de los establecimientos tenía publicidad en interior, 8.3% poseían productos a la altura de los ojos de los niños y 6.5% tenía alguna promoción. El 33.6% tenía letrero de prohibición de venta a menores, en tanto que 44.4% de los establecimientos y 58.8% puestos de calle vendían cigarros sueltos. Conclusiones. Los productos de tabaco son ampliamente publicitados y comercializados alrededor de las escuelas. Existe un alto incumplimiento de las leyes referentes a la venta a menores y por menores. Es urgente implementar un sistema que permita una vigilancia continua de las estrategias de la industria y para el control del tabaco.Objective. To describe strategies used in the publicity, marketing, and sale, of tobacco products in 12 cities in Mexico. Material and Methods. Tobacco products points of sale (POS) were identified within a 500 m radius of Global Youth Tobacco Survey (2005-2006) schools. We used observational surveys and an online Geographic Information System (GIS). Results. In the 257 schools visited, we found, on average, 8.3 stores and 5 street vendors around each of them. Forty-four percent of the stores had interior tobacco publicity, 8.3% had tobacco products at children's eye level, 6.5% had some promotion, 33.6% had a no selling to minors sign, and 44.4% of stores and 58.8% of street vendors sold single cigarettes. Conclusions. Tobacco products are largely publicized and marketed around schools. There is no compliance of tobacco control legislations in regards to selling to minors and single cigarettes. It is necessary to implement a surveillance system to monitor strategies for tobacco control and the tobacco industry.

Este trabajo pretende analizar los avances, obstáculos y retos en materia de impuestos a los cigarrillos en Brasil y México. En años recientes ambos países han incrementado estos impuestos y han incorporado alícuotas fijas, lo cual permite maximizar el efecto del aumento de los impuestos sobre los precios. Sin embargo, parece que estas medidas no se han aprovechado en toda su potencialidad. Tres recomendaciones surgen de estas experiencias: 1) las alícuotas fijas deben representar un porcentaje significativo del precio final; 2) deben ajustarse regularmente de acuerdo con la inflación acumulada; y 3) deben ajustarse para compensar el crecimiento del ingreso personal. También es importante que los impuestos a los sustitutos legales sean similares a los de los cigarrillos. En el caso de los sustitutos ilegales, la cuestión es reducir los incentivos y limitar la facilidad con que se realiza su distribución y venta. Adecuaciones en las legislaciones nacionales y cooperación internacional constituyen elementos clave para lograrlo.This study analyzes the achievements, obstacles and challenges related to cigarette taxes in Brazil and Mexico. Both countries have increased cigarette taxes in recent years and have included a specific tax, which allows maximizing the impact of tax increases on prices. However, it seems they have not taken full advantage of these measures. Three recommendations follow from these experiences: 1) specific taxes must represent a significant percentage of final prices; 2) specific taxes must be regularly adjusted to keep pace with cumulative inflation; and 3) specific taxes must be adjusted to compensate increases in personal income. It is also important to consider that taxes on legal substitutes of cigarettes must be similar to cigarette taxes. As for illegal substitutes, the issue is to reduce the incentives for illicit trade and to make illegal transactions more difficult. Modifications to national legislations and international cooperation constitute key elements to achieve this.

Objective. To assess the impact of Mexico City and federal smoke-free legislation on secondhand tobacco smoke (SHS) exposure and support for smoke-free laws. Material and Methods. Pre- and post-law data were analyzed from a cohort of adult smokers who participated in the International Tobacco Control (ITC) Policy Evaluation Suvey in four Mexican cities. For each indicator, we estimated prevalence, changes in prevalence, and between-city differences in rates of change. Results. Self-reported exposure to smoke-free media campaigns generally increased more dramatically in Mexico City. Support for prohibiting smoking in regulated venues increased overall, but at a greater rate in Mexico City than in other cities. In bars and restaurants/cafés, self-reported SHS exposure had significantly greater decreases in Mexico City than in other cities; however, workplace exposure decreased in Tijuana and Guadalajara, but not in Mexico City or Ciudad Juárez. Conclusions. Although federal smoke-free legislation was associated with important changes smoke-free policy impact, the comprehensive smoke-free law in Mexico City was generally accompanied by a greater rate of change.Objetivo. Evaluar el impacto de la legislación federal y del Distrito Federal (DF) de espacios libres de humo de tabaco (ELHT) sobre la exposición al humo de tabaco y el apoyo a las leyes. Material y métodos. Se analizaron datos antes y después de la ley en una cohorte de fumadores adultos de cuatro ciudades mexicanas donde se aplicó la Encuesta Internacional para Evaluar las Políticas Públicas para el Control del Tabaco (Encuesta ITC). Para cada indicador, se estimó la prevalencia, cambios en la prevalencia y diferencias entre ciudades en las tasas de cambio. Resultados. La exposición autorreportada a las campañas sobre los ELHT incrementaron dramáticamente en el DF. El apoyo para prohibir fumar en lugares regulados aumentó en general, pero aumentó más en el DF. La exposición autorreportada al humo de tabaco en bares y restaurantes, en el DF disminuyó significativamente más que en las otras ciudades; sin embargo, la exposición en lugares de trabajo disminuyó en Tijuana y Guadalajara, pero no en el DF o Ciudad Juárez. Conclusiones. La ley federal que promovió ELHT tuvo impactos importantes; sin embargo, la ley del DF, que es más integral, fue acompañada por unas mayores tasas de cambio.

Las fases más avanzadas de la epidemia tabáquica muestran que las desigualdades sociales, en general, y las de género, en particular, favorecen el consumo de tabaco entre las mujeres y los grupos sociales más desfavorecidos. Dada la creciente prevalencia de tabaquismo entre las mujeres, resulta prioritario incorporar la perspectiva de género en el diseño de políticas de prevención y tratamiento del tabaquismo. Tras breve mención del marco global del control del tabaquismo, se describen las diferentes políticas con las estrategias mínimas que deberían incluir los aspectos específicos de género. Entre ellas se incluyen medidas de empoderamiento destinadas, en principio, a disminuir la desigualdad de género; medidas legislativas; medidas asistenciales y, por último, medidas relacionadas con la investigación y la evaluación, con el objetivo de incorporar la perspectiva de género tanto en la elaboración de políticas como en el análisis del problema.Later stages of the smoking epidemic show that social and gender inequalities increase tobacco use among women and more deprived social groups. Given that smoking prevalence among women is increasing adding gender perspective in the design of prevention and tobacco control policies is a priority. After a brief description of the overall frame of tobacco control, different policies including minimum strategies that should incorporate gender specific aspects are described. Among them, empowerment measures addressed to reduce gender inequities are included; legislative measures; health care measures; and lastly measures related to research and evaluation aiming to add gender perspective in tobacco policy implementation and analysis.

El tabaquismo es un grave problema de salud pública en Latinoamérica, cuyos países aún muestran en su estructura poblacional una amplia base piramidal formada por grupos etarios de jóvenes que han sido el blanco primordial de la industria tabacalera. Latinoamérica requiere urgentemente de estrategias de prevención y acciones sanitarias para modificar las consecuencias de fumar sobre la salud de la población a través de la cesación del tabaquismo. El tratamiento de la adicción a la nicotina requiere estrategias de intervención eficaces para disminuir la prevalencia de fumadores y evitar su recaída, brindándoles herramientas para el mantenimiento de la abstinencia. En la actualidad, poblaciones pobres y vulnerables (44% de la población latinoaméricana) están condenadas a sufrir las consecuencias sanitarias de esta enfermedad, ya que son las que presentan un mayor consumo de tabaco y las que pueden acceder menos a las intervenciones sanitarias. El Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco (CMCT) y el MPOWER, ambos estrategias de la Organización Mundial de la Salud para la lucha contra el tabaco, definen claras líneas de acción pero sus limitaciones están definidas por los recursos que se asignan para las mismas en cada país. La comunidad científica y técnica abocada a la lucha contra este flagelo debe considerar y poner en marcha nuevas perspectivas para lograr colocar en la agenda política la necesidad de obtener y asignar más recursos económicos y humanos para disminuir el consumo del tabaco en todos los grupos de la población. En la lucha contra el tabaco, este es el momento indicado para considerar primordialmente aspectos de equidad y justicia social en salud.The tobacco epidemic is a huge public health problem affecting all Latin American countries. These countries have the characteristic of a wide base of the pyramidal population structure, with many young people who have been natural targets for the tobacco industry. Therefore in this region there is an urgent need to establish prevention and treatment strategies capable to reduce incidence and prevalence of tobacco smoking in the population and as a consequence modify the health effects of tobacco consumption. Treating nicotine addiction requires intervention strategies really effective to reduce the number of current smokers as well as giving them tools to avoid relapse and maintain abstinence. Currently poor and vulnerable groups, which represent 44% of the total population in Latin America, are the most susceptible to suffer the health consequences of smoking since they show the highest prevalence rates and have little or no access to health services. The Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (FCTC) and MPOWER, both strategies proposed by the World Health Organization against tobacco, define clear goals to achieve their purposes, nevertheless they are limited by the economic and human resources assigned by each country. The scientific community involved in the fight against tobacco must think about new ways to place this issue in the political agenda so there will be more opportunities to increase the resources and therefore to reduce tobacco consumption in all the groups of the population. In the fight against tobacco, this is the right time to consider primarily issues related to equity and social justice.

Objetivo. Evaluar el impacto de diferentes advertencias sanitarias (AS). Material y métodos. Se analizaron datos de la Encuesta Internacional para el Control del Tabaco (ITC Survey), un estudio de fumadores adultos en Brasil, Uruguay y México, tres países con distintas AS (con imágenes de sufrimiento humano y órganos enfermos; con imágenes abstractas del riesgo; mensajes de solo texto, respectivamente). Se analizó prominencia e impacto cognitivo de las AS. Resultados. Las AS de Uruguay (que era el único país con AS en la parte frontal del paquete) tuvieron una mayor prominencia que en Brasil o México. En México, la gente que tenía un nivel de educación mayor eran mas propensos a leer mensajes de advertencia, mientras que educación no se asoció con prominencia en Brasil o Uruguay. Las AS de Brasil tuvieron un mayor impacto cognitivo y conductual que las AS de Uruguay o México. Las AS de Uruguay generaron un menor impacto cognitivo y conductual que las AS de sólo texto en México. En Brasil, los impactos cognitivos fueron los más fuertes entre fumadores con un bajo nivel educacional. Conclusiones. Este estudio sugiere que las AS tienen el mayor impacto cuando son prominentes (por ej. en el frente y la parte trasera del paquete) e incluyen imágenes emocionalmente llamativas que muestran impactos negativos en el cuerpo o sufrimiento humano debido al fumar.Objective. To assess the impact of different health warning labels (HWL). Material and Methods. Data from the International Tobacco Control Survey (ITC Survey) were analyzed from adult smokers in Brazil, Uruguay and Mexico, each of which used a different HWL strategy (pictures of human suffering and diseased organs; abstract pictorial representations of risk; and text-only messages, respectively). Main outcomes were HWL salience and cognitive impact. Results. HWLs in Uruguay (which was the only country with a HWL on the front of the package) had higher salience than either Brazilian or Mexican packs. People at higher levels of educational attainment in Mexico were more likely to read the text-only HWLs whereas education was unassociated with salience in Brazil or Uruguay. Brazilian HWLs had greater cognitive impacts than HWLs in either Uruguay or Mexico. HWLs in Uruguay generated lower cognitive impacts than the text-only HWLs in Mexico. In Brazil, cognitive impacts were strongest among smokers with low educational attainment. Conclusions. This study suggests that HWLs have the most impact when they are prominent (i.e., front and back of the package) and include emotionally engaging imagery that illustrates negative bodily impacts or human suffering due to smoking.

Tobacco packaging and labeling policies have emerged as prominent and cost-effective tobacco control measures. Although packaging policies have primarily focused on health warnings, there is growing recognition of the importance of packaging as a marketing tool for the tobacco industry. The current paper reviews evidence on the potential impact of standardizing the color and design of tobacco packages -so called "plain" packaging. The evidence indicates three primary benefits of plain packaging: increasing the effectiveness of health warnings, reducing false health beliefs about cigarettes, and reducing brand appeal especially among youth and young adults. Overall, the research to date suggests that "plain" packaging regulations would be an effective tobacco control measure, particularly in jurisdictions with comprehensive restrictions on other forms of marketing.La política pública del empaquetado y etiquetado de productos de tabaco ha llegado a ser una forma costo-efectiva y significativa para el control del tabaco. Aunque las políticas públicas de empaquetado se han enfocado principalmente en advertencias sanitarias, el reconocimiento de la importancia del empaquetado como herramienta mercadológica ha crecido considerablemente. El presente artículo analiza la evidencia del impacto potencial de estandarizar el empaquetado de productos de tabaco -en color y diseño-, el llamado "empaquetado sencillo". La evidencia indica tres beneficios principales del empaquetado sencillo: mayor efectividad de las advertencias sanitarias; reducción de creencias falsas sobre cigarrillos y salud; y reducción de la preferencia por ciertas marcas, especialmente entre jovenes y jóvenes adultos. En general, los estudios hasta la fecha sugieren que el empaquetado sencillo sería una medida efectiva de control del tabaco, particularmente en jurisdicciones con restricciones amplias sobre otras formas de mercadotecnia.

Objetivo. Estimar la elasticidad precio de la demanda de cigarros en México con base en fuentes de información y metodología distintas a las utilizadas en estudios previos sobre el tema. Material y métodos. Se utilizaron series trimestrales de consumo, ingreso y precio para el periodo de 1994 a 2005. Se estimó un modelo de demanda de largo plazo mediante mínimos cuadrados ordinarios (MCO) y se investigó la existencia de una relación de cointegración. Además, se estimó un modelo mediante mínimos cuadrados ordinarios dinámicos (MCOD) para corregir posibles problemas de endogeneidad de las variables independientes y autocorrelación de los residuales. Resultados. Las estimaciones mediante MCOD mostraron que un incremento del precio de los cigarros de 10% podría reducir el consumo en 2.5% (pObjective. To estimate the price elasticity of the demand for cigarettes in Mexico based on data sources and a methodology different from the ones used in previous studies on the topic. Material and Methods. Quarterly time series of consumption, income and price for the time period 1994 to 2005 were used. A long-run demand model was estimated using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) and the existence of a cointegration relationship was investigated. Also, a model using Dinamic Ordinary Least Squares (DOLS) was estimated to correct for potential endogeneity of independent variables and autocorrelation of the residuals. Results. DOLS estimates showed that a 10% increase in cigarette prices could reduce consumption in 2.5% (p

Tras la ratificación del Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco de la OMS, de junio de 2004 a diciembre de 2006, la regulación del tabaco por el gobierno mexicano estuvo determinada por un convenio suscrito entre las autoridades federales del sector salud y las principales tabacaleras de México (al que en este análisis se le llamará Convenio). Este Convenio fijó la regulación federal del control al tabaquismo bajo un esquema en el que su modificación requería la anuencia de las tabacaleras. Asimismo, estableció una aportación monetaria de las tabacaleras a favor del gobierno, determinada directamente en función del volumen de ventas de tabaco en el país. A fin de contribuir a la cabal comprensión de las implicaciones del Convenio, este estudio procura deslindar con toda claridad sus implicaciones desde una perspectiva estrictamente jurídica. Por una parte se identifican los problemas de regularidad jurídica del Convenio a la luz de la normatividad aplicable y, por la otra, se identifican aquellos elementos materiales y formales del Convenio que efectivamente se ajustan a la misma. El texto se divide en cuatro apartados: i) el primero expone claramente los términos del Convenio; ii) el segundo identifica los elementos que resultan contrarios al derecho nacional e internacional; iii) el tercero, identifica los elementos que resultan acordes al derecho nacional e internacional y, finalmente; iv) el cuarto plantea conclusiones del análisis realizado.In the aftermath of Mexico’s ratification of the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, from June 2004 through December 2006, tobacco regulation by Mexico’s government came to be shaped by an agreement between the health authorities and the leading tobacco companies in Mexico. This agreement set federal tobacco control regulation, subjecting it to the approval of tobacco companies themselves. In addition, it established a donation by tobacco companies to the health authorities to be directly determined by the volume of tobacco sales in the country. So as to contribute to the full understanding of this agreement, this article strives to clearly identify its implications from a strictly legal perspective. On one hand, this study identifies the irregularities of the agreement in light of the applicable law; on the other, it identifies those elements that actually do comply with applicable law. In consequence, the text is divided in four sections: i) the first section explains the terms of the agreement itself, ii) the second section identifies those aspects of the agreement which are contrary to law, iii) the third section identifies those aspects of the agreement which are in accordance with law, and finally iv) presents the conclusions that follow from the preceding analysis.

OBJETIVO: Analizar la información de la Encuesta sobre tabaquismo en jóvenes (ETJ) sobre consumo de cigarro y otros indicadores propuestos en el Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco (CMCT). MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: La ETJ usa un diseño de muestreo por conglomerado en dos etapas que genera muestras representativas de estudiantes de 12 a 15 años de las escuelas secundarias públicas, privadas y técnicas. Incluye 33,297 estudiantes de 399 escuelas de nueve ciudades. Se obtuvieron prevalencias puntuales y diferencias de proporciones, así como razones de momios ajustadas por edad. RESULTADOS: La prevalencia de fumadores en el mes anterior a la encuesta es de 24.9% (IC 95% 22.5-27.3). El índice de susceptibilidad de iniciarse en el consumo de cigarros es de 28%. Al comparar con la aplicación en 2003, no se observa una disminución del consumo ni de la exposición al humo de tabaco, ni aumento en las tasas de cesación. En los programas escolares se han incrementado significativamente los contenidos de daños a la salud causados por fumar. No se observan avances en cuanto a reducción de la publicidad del tabaco, ni reducción del acceso de los menores al tabaco. Se presentan estimados nacionales y por ciudad. CONCLUSIÓN: Dos años después de ratificado el CMCT todavía no hay avances significativos en las principales áreas abordadas por dicho convenio, especialmente no ha disminuido el consumo de tabaco entre los estudiantes de secundaria.OBJECTIVE: The aim of this paper is to present findings from the GYTS on current cigarette smoking and other tobacco epidemic indicators. MATERIAL AND METHODS: The GYTS uses a two-stage cluster sample survey design that produces representative samples of students aged 12 to 15 years enrolled in public, private and technical schools. The survey was undertaken in 2003 and 2006 at 399 schools in nine cities. The GYTS surveyed 33 297 students. Point prevalence, differences of proportions and adjusted odds ratio were estimated. RESULTS: The overall rate for current smoking in 30 days preceding the survey is 24.9% (95% CI, 22.5-27.3). Among never smokers, 28% are likely to initiate smoking next year. As compared to the previous survey in 2003, there is not a reduction in cigarette smoking or exposure to secondhand smoke. Cessation rates have not changed and advertisements and access by minors to tobacco products are still unresolved problems. However, tobacco related materials have significantly been added to school curricula. National estimates are presented, as well as city level estimates. CONCLUSION: Two years after FCTC ratification, there is no major improvement in critical areas of tobacco control in Mexico; particularly, there is no evidence of reduction in cigarette smoking among students in secondary schools.

Según la Organización Mundial de la Salud (OMS), el tabaquismo causa en todo el mundo cerca de cinco millones de muertes al año, es decir, alrededor de 13 mil muertes diarias. En México, cerca de 60 000 defunciones por año y 165 diarias se atribuyen a esa causa, 25.6% de la población es fumador pasivo y se estima que la edad de inicio de consumo disminuyó a 12 años de edad o menos. México inició la lucha contra el tabaquismo hace dos decenios y en años recientes se combinaron acciones administrativas y legislativas relacionadas con aspectos tributarios y de regulación sanitaria. México fue el primer país en América en adherirse al Convenio Marco para el Control del Tabaco (CMCT, de la OMS, firmado por México el 12 de agosto de 2003 y ratificado el 14 de abril del año siguiente). Para el gobierno federal, la prevención y el tratamiento del tabaquismo son parte de una estrategia que busca la sinergia de los actores públicos, privados y sociales involucrados en el tema; los resultados de ese esfuerzo deberán presentarse en 2008.According to WHO, tobacco is responsible of almost five million deaths annually and around 13 thousand daily deaths in the world. Mexico has 60 thousand deaths per year and 165 per day for smoking, 25.6% of the population are passive smokers and the initiated age in tobacco consumption has diminished to 11 either 12 years or less. Two decades ago the fight against tobacco began in Mexico, and recently it combined administrative actions and legislative related to tributary matter and sanitary regulation. Mexico was the first country in America in signing the FCTC in August 12, 2003 and in April 14, 2004 ratified it, which means it is part of our legislation. At present, Federal Government prevention and tobacco treatment are focus actions integrated in an Strategy, which is looking to articulate synergy of all public, private and social actors involved in the subject, to give fulfillment to the Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO) specially in the contracted obligations and in 2008 they must show results.

OBJETIVO: Evaluar el uso de drogas ilegales y su interacción con el consumo de tabaco en jóvenes estudiantes de un estado de la región central de México, 2005-2007. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Se realizó un estudio de cohorte en el ámbito escolar en el estado de Morelos. La población fue de 4 625 alumnos. Se efectuó el análisis de la medición basal describiendo el consumo de tabaco, alcohol y drogas ilegales; se evaluó la diferencia del consumo de estas últimas mediante modelos de regresión logística y se estratificó por el antecedente de fumar. RESULTADOS: El promedio de edad fue 13.8 (DE 2.03). La proporción de mujeres fue de 51.9%; 11.9% notificó el antecedente de consumo de tabaco (13.5% hombres y 10.4% mujeres). El uso de drogas ilegales fue de 3.3% (3.7% hombres y 2.8% mujeres), su distribución según el consumo de tabaco fue de 2.0% en los no fumadores y 12.4% en los que tenían antecedente de consumo de tabaco. En el grupo de no fumadores, el consumo de drogas ilegales por parte de los padres incrementó 4.5 veces (IC95% 1.9-11.0) la posibilidad de que un adolescente usara drogas ilegales en relación con aquellos cuyos padres no consumen drogas ilegales, relación no significativa en el grupo de fumadores. Para este último grupo, el consumo de alcohol se asoció con el uso de drogas ilegales (OR = 2.6; IC95% 1.2-5.9). CONCLUSIONES: El control y prevención del consumo de tabaco y otras sustancias adictivas debe realizarse de manera integral, ya que vistas en su contexto tales conductas se encuentran relacionadas.OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the use of the illicit drugs and its interaction with smoking in young students in a state of Central Mexico, 2005-2007. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A population cohort study with 4 625 students was carried out in different public schools in Morelos State. Baseline measurement analysis was carried out describing tobacco, alcohol and illegal drugs consumption. Drug abuse according to tobacco onsumption was assessed through logistic regression models, stratified by smoking habit. RESULTS: Mean age was 13.8 (SD 2.03); 51.9% were female students and 11.9% of total population informed having smoked (13.5% men and 10.4% women). Illicit drug use was 3.3%; 3.7% in men and 2.8% in women and its distribution according tobacco smoking was 2.0% for non smokers and 12.4% for those who had smoked. In non smokers group, parent’s drug use was 4.5 times (CI95% 1.9-11.0) higher compared to those students whose parents do not do drug use. The effect was not significant in smokers group. Alcohol intake was associated to drug abuse in smokers group (OR=2.5; CI95% 1.2-5.9). CONCLUSIONS: The control and prevention of tobacco consumption and other addictive substances should be carried out since in a comprehensive way, because contextual antecedent these behaviors are related.

Objective. To analyze tobacco consumption in the last 12 years, its impact on chronic diseases mortality and the potential benefits of fiscal policy in Mexico. Materials and methods. Through the analysis of national health surveys (ENSA, ENSANUT), records of mortality and economic surveys between 2000 and 2012, smoking prevalence, chronic diseases mortality and consumption were estimated. Results. In 2012, 9.2% and 19% of Mexican youths and adults were current smokers. Between 2000 and 2012, smoking prevalence did not change. However, the average consumption among adolescents and adults declined whilst the special tobacco tax has being increased. Mortality attributable to tobacco consumption for four diseases was estimated in 60 000 in 2010. Conclusions. Tobacco consumption remains the leading cause of preventable death. Increasing taxes on tobacco products could deter the tobacco epidemic and consequently chronic diseases mortality in Mexico. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. A systematic review on efficacy and safety of smoking cessation counseling was developed. Materials and methods. The ADAPTE methodology was used with a search of Clinical Practice Guidelines (CPG) in Medline, EMBASE, CINAHL, LILACS,and Cochrane. DELBI was used to select CPG with score over 60 in methodological rigor and applicability to the Colombian health system. Smoking cessation rates at 6 months were assessed according to counseling provider, model, and format. In total 5 CPG out of 925 references were selected comprising 44 systematic reviews and metaanalyses. Results. Physician brief counseling and trained health professionals' intensive counseling (individual, group, proactive telephone) are effective with abstinence rates between 2.1 % and 17.4%. Only practical counseling and motivational interview were found effective intensive inter-ventions.The clinical effect of smoking cessation counseling is low and long term cessation rates uncertain. Conclusion. Cost-effectiveness analyses are recommended for the implementation of counseling in public health programs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Raising tobacco taxes can have an income distributional impact on the population. Since lower socio-economic groups usually smoke more, they also contribute more to total cigarette tax collection. Thus, those who can afford it least contribute the most in terms of tobacco taxes. This means that tobacco taxes are regressive. However, tobacco tax increases are likely to be progressive, decreasing the relative tax incidence on the poor, vis-à-vis the rich. This is based on the premise that the poor are likely to be more sensitive to price changes, and would thus reduce their cigarette consumption by a greater percentage than the rich in response to an excise tax-induced increase in cigarette prices. Recent empirical studies confirm this hypothesis by demonstrating that the price responsiveness of cigarette demand increases with income. Research in China confirmed that reducing cigarette expenditures could release household resources for spending on food, housing, and other goods that improve living standards. Therefore, in the long run, tobacco control measures will reduce social inequality.Elevar impuestos al tabaco también puede provocar en la población un impacto de división. La recaudación de impuestos al tabaco se ha elevado desde que las personas de bajo nivel socio-económico fuman cada vez más y, de hecho, son los que más contribuyen al total de la recaudación. Esto significa que los impuestos son regresivos. Sin embargo, el impuesto al tabaco es probable que vaya en aumento, y con ello disminuiría la incidencia relativa de impuestos a la pobreza en relación con la riqueza. Esto se basa en la premisa de que la población de escasos recursos es más sensible a los cambios del precio del tabaco y, por tanto, reduciría su consumo, en comparación con lo que sucede en el porcentaje de la población de altos recursos respecto a un aumento del impuesto-inducido en el tabaco. Los estudios empíricos recientes confirman esta hipótesis y demuestran que el precio del cigarrillo experimenta un aumento con las ganancias. La investigación en China ratifica que reduciendo el consumo de cigarros se podrían ingresar mayores recursos para alimentación y sustento a las familias, así como otros productos que ayuden a incrementar su nivel de vida. Por lo tanto, a largo plazo, las medidas para el control de tabaco reducirían la inequidad social.