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Ice hockey is an intense team sport characterized by repeated bursts of fast‐paced skating, rapid changes in speed and direction and frequent physical encounters. These are performed in on‐ice shifts of ~30–80 s interspersed with longer sequences of passive recovery, resulting in about 15–25 min on‐ice time per player. Nearly 50% of the distance is covered at high‐intensity skating speeds and with an accentuated intense activity pattern in forwards compared to defensemen. During ice hockey match‐play, both aerobic and anaerobic energy systems are significantly challenged, with the heart rate increasing toward maximum levels during each shift, and with great reliance on both glycolytic and phosphagen ATP provision. The high‐intensity activity pattern favors muscle glycogen as fuel, leading to pronounced reductions despite the relatively brief playing time, including severe depletion of a substantial proportion of individual fast‐ and slow‐twitch fibers. Player‐tracking suggests that the ability to perform high‐intensity skating is compromised in the final stages of a game, which is supported by post‐game reductions in repeated‐sprint ability. Muscle glycogen degradation, in particular in individual fibers, as well as potential dehydration and hyperthermia, may be prime candidates implicated in exacerbated fatigue during the final stages of a game, whereas multiple factors likely interact to impair exercise tolerance during each shift. This includes pronounced PCr degradation, with potential inadequate resynthesis in a proportion of fast‐twitch fibers in situations of repeated intense actions. Finally, the recovery pattern is inadequately described, but seems less long‐lasting than in other team sports. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We combined game activity analyses with skeletal muscle phenotypes and comprehensive physiological testing to elucidate factors of importance for physical performance in elite women's football. GPS‐data from an experimental game, sprint and endurance testing, and muscle tissue analysis of metabolic enzyme activity, protein expression and fiber type composition were completed for international top‐level women players (n = 20; age; 23 ± 4 yrs, height; 166 ± 10 cm, weight; 60 ± 8 kg; VO2max; 51 ± 6 ml/min/kg). Muscle monocarboxylate transporter 4 (MCT4) protein expression explained 46% of the variance in total game distance, while the ability to maintain high‐intensity running (HIR) during the final 15 min of the game correlated to myosin heavy chain 1 (MHCI) and Na+‐K+ ATPase β1, FXYD1 (phospholemman) and superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2) protein expression (range: r = 0.51–0.71; all p < 0.05). Total HIR distance correlated with (MHCIIa) protein expression (r = 0.51; p < 0.05), while muscle Na+/H+ exchanger 1 (NHE1) protein explained 36% of the variance in game sprint distance (p < 0.05). Total game accelerations (actions >4 m/s2) correlated with platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule (PECAM‐1) protein expression (r = 0.51; p < 0.05), while concentric knee flexor strength explained 42–62% of the variance in intense decelerations (>4 m/s2). In conclusion, for elite women players' game endurance performance and resistance to end‐game fatigue were affected by monocarboxylate transporter expression and myosin heavy chain profile. HIR was also correlated to ion transporter expression and muscle antioxidative capacity. Finally, the importance of functional strength and measures of muscle vascularization in relation to total game decelerations and accelerations, respectively, illustrates the complex physiological demands in elite women's football. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examined skeletal muscle metabolism and changes in repeated sprint performance during match play for n = 20 competitive elite women outfield players. We obtained musculus vastus lateralis biopsies and blood samples before, after, and following intense periods in each half of a friendly match, along with 5 × 30‐meter sprint tests and movement pattern analyses (10‐Hz S5 Global Positioning System [GPS]). Muscle glycogen decreased by 39% and 42% after an intense period of the second half and after the match, respectively, compared to baseline (p < 0.05). Post‐match, 80% type I fibers and 69% type II fibers were almost empty or completely empty of glycogen. Muscle lactate was higher (p < 0.05) after the intense period of the first half and post‐match compared to baseline (14.3 ± 4.6 (±SEM) and 12.9 ± 5.7 vs. 6.4 ± 3.7 mmol/kg d.w.). Muscle phosphocreatine was reduced (p < 0.05) by 16% and 12%, respectively, after an intense period in the first and second half compared to baseline. Blood lactate and glucose increased during the match and peaked at 8.4 ± 2.0 and 7.9 ± 1.2 mmol/L, respectively. Mean 5 × 30 m sprint time declined by 3.2 ± 1.7 and 7.0 ± 2.1% after the first and second half, respectively, and 4.7 ± 1.6% (p < 0.05) after an intense period in the first half compared to baseline. In conclusion, match play in elite female football players resulted in marked glycogen depletion in both fiber types, which may explain fatigue at the end of a match. Repeated sprint ability was impaired after intense periods in the first half and after both halves, which may be associated with the observed muscle metabolite perturbations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Women's football is an intermittent sport characterized by frequent intense actions throughout the match. The high number of matches with limited recovery time played across a long competitive season underlines the importance of nutritional strategies to meet these large physical demands. In order to maximize sport performance and maintain good health, energy intake must be optimal. However, a considerable proportion of female elite football players does not have sufficient energy intake to match the energy expenditure, resulting in low energy availability that might have detrimental physiologic consequences and impair performance. Carbohydrates appear to be the primary fuel covering the total energy supply during match‐play, and female elite football players should aim to consume sufficient carbohydrates to meet the requirements of their training program and to optimize the replenishment of muscle glycogen stores between training bouts and matches. However, several macro‐ and micronutrients are important for ensuring sufficient energy and nutrients for performance optimization and for overall health status in female elite football players. The inadequacy of macro‐and micronutrients in the diet of these athletes may impair performance and training adaptations, and increase the risk of health disorders, compromising the player's professional career. In this topical review, we present knowledge and relevant nutritional recommendations for elite female football players for the benefit of sports nutritionists, dietitians, sports scientists, healthcare specialists, and applied researchers. We focus on dietary intake and cover the most pertinent topics in sports nutrition for the relevant physical demands in female elite football players as follows: energy intake, macronutrient and micronutrient requirements and optimal composition of the everyday diet, nutritional and hydration strategies to optimize performance and recovery, potential ergogenic effects of authorized relevant supplements, and future research considerations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]