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The qualitative and quantitative assessment of groundwater is one of the important aspects for determining the suitability of potable water. Therefore, the present study has been performed to evaluate the groundwater quality for Achhnera block in the city of Taj, Agra, India, where groundwater is an important water resource. The groundwater samples, 50 in number were collected and analyzed for major ions along with some important trace element. This study has further investigated for the applicability of groundwater quality index (GWQI), and the principal component analysis (PCA) to mark out the major geochemical solutes responsible for origin and release of geochemical solutes into the groundwater. The results confirm that, majority of the collected groundwater samples were alkaline in nature. The variation of concentration of anions in collected groundwater samples were varied in the sequence as, HCO3− > Cl− > SO42− > F− while in contrast the sequence of cations in the groundwater as Na > Ca > Mg > K. The Piper diagram demonstrated the major hydro chemical facies which were found in groundwater (sodium bicarbonate or calcium chloride type). The plot of Schoellar diagram reconfirmed that the major cations were Na+ and Ca2+ ions, while in contrast; major anions were bicarbonates and chloride. The results showed water quality index mostly ranged between 105 and 185, hence, the study area fell in the category of unsuitable for drinking purpose category. The PCA showed pH, Na+, Ca2+, HCO3− and fluoride with strong loading, which pointed out geogenic source of fluoride contamination. Therefore, it was inferred that the groundwater of the contaminated areas must be treated and made potable before consumption. The outcomes of the present study will be helpful for the regulatory boards and policymaker for defining the actual impact and remediation goal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study quantifies the groundwater fluoride contamination and assesses associated health risks in fluoride-prone areas of the city of Taj Mahal, Agra, India. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) risk model and Monte Carlo Simulations were employed for the assessment. Result revealed that, among various rural and urban areas Pachgain Kheda exhibited the highest average fluoride concentration (5.20 mg/L), while Bagda showed the lowest (0.33 mg/L). Similarly, K.K. Nagar recorded 4.38 mg/L, and Dayalbagh had 1.35 mg/L. Both urban and rural areas exceeded the WHO-recommended limit of 1.5 mg/L, signifying significant public health implications. Health risk assessment indicated a notably elevated probability of non-carcinogenic risk from oral groundwater fluoride exposure in the rural Baroli Ahir block. Risk simulations highlighted that children faced the highest health risks, followed by teenagers and adults. Further, Monte Carlo simulation addressed uncertainties, emphasizing escalated risks for for children and teenagers. The Hazard Quotient (HQ) values for the 5th and 95th percentile in rural areas ranged from was 0.28–5.58 for children, 0.15–2.58 for teenager, and 0.05–0.58 for adults. In urban areas, from the range was 0.53 to 5.26 for children, 0.27 to 2.41 for teenagers, and 0.1 to 0.53 for adults. Physiological and exposure variations rendered children and teenagers more susceptible. According to the mathematical model, calculations for the non-cancerous risk of drinking water (HQ-ing), the most significant parameters in all the targeted groups of rural areas were concentration (CW) and Ingestion rate (IR). These findings hold relevance for policymakers and regulatory boards in understanding the actual impact and setting pre-remediation goals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]