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Presents findings of an investigation of androgynous behavior across situations and within situations, and differences in sensitivity to traditional sex role stereotypes. All types of men were equally sensitive to stereotypes. Feminine women displayed the strongest gender-schema effects, and androgynous women displayed the least effects. (KH)

Examination of self-descriptions of 1,623 undergraduates (collectedd in 1958-64, 1970-74, and 1977-82) failed to support the prevailing assumption that masculinity and femininity develop independently. Rather, a positive relation was found between the presence of masculine and feminine traits within the same individual even when gender and state of the feminist movement were considered. (KH)

In a survey of 508 undergraduates, males reported significantly lower levels of emotional intimacy in same-sex friendship than females. Masculinity, defined in terms of "instrumental" qualities, had little effect on the degree of reported intimacy, while femininity, defined in terms of "expressive" qualities, was positively associated with intimate friendship. (KH)

Explores the differences in masculinity-femininity between women who enroll in higher level mathematics courses and those who do not. Contrasts personality traits, attitudes, and role behaviors of the two groups of women. Results indicate that the two groups differ on a number of variables including background and vocational interests. (Author/SA)

Examines achievement behavior of women in relation to their masculinity-femininity of self-concept and the mediating effects of the situation. While feminine women did not perform more poorly when competing against lower ability males than against lower ability females, very feminine women were more ambivalent about competing successfully than were other women. (Author/LHW)

With data gathered from 96 female college students, intercorrelations were examined among self-concept ratings and scales from two personality-trait measures of masculinity and femininity. When balanced for the desirability of trait items, personality-trait scores of masculinity and femininity were inversely correlated with each other. (Author/KH)

A study of sex-role identification partly confirmed two hypotheses: (1) the social relationships of late childhood have attributes which encourage the feminine stereotype rather than the masculine stereotype; and (2) children of both sexes who attest to masculine characteristics feel higher levels of discordance than those who attest to female characteristics. (KH)

Six different measures of sex typing were administered to 101 children aged three- to five-years-old. Results demonstrate that there is a weak correlation among measures of sex typing. Correlations were higher in magnitude and more numerous for boys than for girls, which suggests the possibility of separate patterns of sex-typed development. (BJV)

Sex-typed subjects express concerns about the gender appropriateness of a sport more often than androgynous and undifferentiated subjects. Moreover, they rate gender-based factors as more important to their decisions than do the latter two groups. (Author/BJV)

To evaluate the effect of college experience on androgyny, 139 freshmen and 57 senior women completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI), and other tests. The results did not support the hypothesis that women become more masculine in college. However, the seniors did obtain significantly lower scores than freshmen on the BSRI Femininity scale. (Author/BJV)

Describes a new self-disclosure questionnaire devised to examine women's and men's willingness to disclose information about their "masculine" and "feminine" aspects. Applied to 156 undergraduates, the scale was found to be reliable and valid, and particularly useful when the concern is with the disclosure of instrumental and expressive personality characteristics. (KH)

Presents findings about sex roles in 171 male and 180 female university students in Ireland who were examined by the Bem Sex Role Inventory, and discusses the validity of this test. The distribution of subjects on sex-role types showed a larger percentage of androgynous males and undifferentiated females in the Irish sample than in American samples. (KH)

High-masculinity subjects, compared to low-masculinity persons, scored significantly lower on self-report measures of depression, state anxiety, and trait anxiety. No differences in distress were found as a function of sex or of the femininity dimension. High-masculine subjects also rated their problem-solving ability as more effective. (Author/LHW)

Considers the following dimensions of attributional models: (1) responsibility for causes of problems, and (2) for solutions to problems. Finds a significant association between femininity and low internal attribution of responsibility for problem solving. Discusses results in terms of sex role and gender differences in help seeking. (Author/LHW)

Most sports are constitutive of the masculine identity, and these explicit gender perceptions influence sport participation. Less is known about implicit gender perceptions in sport, which may be instrumental in redefining the narrative of gender stereotypes and sport participation. This study explored gender differences in the implicit and explicit perceptions of sport. A total of 187 adults (45.45% female; Mage = 32.62 years, SDage = 13.07 years) completed an implicit association task by sorting sport words from the Canadian Women and Sport 'She's Got It All' campaign into gendered categories. Participants self-reported their explicit attitudes towards 10 campaign posters. Using independent sample t-tests, a moderate effect was observed for gender differences in implicit attitudes for sport. Men demonstrated significantly stronger implicit attitudes linking sport to masculine characteristics compared to women. Men reported significantly lower explicit positive attitudes for liking the posters, feeling motivated by them, and perceived relevance. Men and women did not differ on levels of uneasiness and self-consciousness. Results suggest that men maintain implicit gendered attitudes towards sport and report lower positive explicit attitudes to intentional gender equity media. Understanding the counterproductive role that men can play when enforcing stereotypical gendered sport beliefs is vital for advancing girls' and women's engagement in sport. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has shown that women's orgasms function as a masculinity achievement for men. Less clear is whether men's orgasms function as a gendered achievement for women. In the present study, we explored this question via an experimental design by randomly assigning 440 women (M age = 32.29, SD age = 11.91) to read a vignette in which they imagined that an attractive man either did or did not orgasm during a sexual encounter with them. The women then rated their feelings of achievement, failure, femininity, and masculinity in response to the scenario along with how much they would attribute the situation to themselves or to the man partner. Results showed that women experienced men's orgasm presence as a femininity achievement and men's orgasm absence as a femininity failure. There were lesser impacts on women's feelings of masculinity. Feelings of achievement and failure were stronger for women who attributed the scenario more strongly to themselves. Further, greater sexual assertiveness in general predicted stronger feelings of achievement in response to men's orgasm presence and greater feminine gender role stress predicted stronger feelings of failure in response to men's orgasm absence. Together, findings highlight that men's orgasm seems to function as an achievement for women; however, the connection to femininity (which is less valued and prescribed differently compared to masculinity) denotes that men's orgasms for women are a different gendered experience with different stakes compared to women's orgasms for men. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The emergence of gender-typical appearance in childhood appears to have important implications not only for child and adolescent social-emotional functioning but also for later working life. In the current study, we examined how parents' gender-typical appearance and children's gender similarity (to same- and other-gender peers) were related to young children's gender-typical appearance. We also explored differences in these associations between boys, girls, mothers, and fathers. Home visits were conducted with 74 Dutch two-parent (mother, father) families with both a son and daughter between the ages 3–6 years (96.6% White, 2.0% Asian, 1.4% other ethnicity). The gender-typical appearance of all four family members was assessed by trained and reliable coders in the videotaped observations from the home visits. As a measure of children's gender similarity, both parents reported on the similarity of their son and daughter to same-gender and other-gender peers. Generalized estimating equations showed that more gender-typical appearance of parents was associated with more gender-typical appearance of girls, but not of boys. No differences were found between mothers and fathers for the association between parent and child appearance. Moreover, children's gender similarity, evident in parents' perceived similarity of their child to peers of the same gender and dissimilarity to peers of the other gender, was associated with more gender-typical appearance in children. To conclude, both children's gender similarity and parents' gender-typical appearance appear to play a role in the gender-typical appearance of young children. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The term "Incel" refers to a group of boys and/or men who feel that they have been unjustly denied relationships and sex with women due to an unfair social system, and some Incels have committed violence based on these beliefs. More broadly, self-identified Incels face social and mental health issues and can hold negative beliefs about women and other marginalized genders, which may lead them to harm both themselves and others. In this research, we seek to understand the experiences that may lead men to become Incels. We interviewed 21 people who identified as former Incels about their experiences joining and leaving Incel groups, with the goal of understanding how men find their way into these groups, and how resources might be adapted to prevent young men from becoming Incels. A reflexive thematic analysis generated two major themes with subthemes. The first theme, Seeking help online for struggles meeting masculinity norms, had three subthemes that reflected the specific struggles being experienced: I'm a loser because I can't get women, I'm all alone, and I have no value. The second theme, Down the rabbit hole: Finding help online from the Incel community, had three subthemes that reflected the several ways they were validated by the community: It's not your fault, You belong here, and You are special. These findings highlight specific pathways that lead men to Incel communities and why they join them, and potential points for intervention that center pressures for boys and men to conform to masculine norms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While scholars have extensively studied rape myth acceptance, less is known about these myths within hypermasculine environments and among women within these environments. One hypermasculine environment in which rape myth acceptance remains understudied is the United States Air Force Academy, which is characterized by the hypermasculinity that is often found in military environments and is an academic institution prone to high levels of sexual assault like most college campuses. Indeed, a top priority at the Air Force Academy is lowering sexual assault rates. This paper analyzes the hypermasculine environment found at the Air Force Academy and examines rape myth acceptance among female cadets. Specifically, this study investigates the impact of the Enhanced Access, Acknowledge, Act (EAAA) Sexual Assault Resistance training program in reducing acceptance of rape myths by female cadets. Using survey data from the Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale and the Perceived Causes of Rape Scale, we find that the program was effective in reducing rape myth adherence overall, which is consistent with other studies measuring the effectiveness of the EAAA program. Further, a more granular examination of the surveys revealed changes to specific rape myth beliefs within the unique context of the military academy's hypermasculine environment. Implications for sexual assault prevention programs in hypermasculine environments such as military settings are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Prior research has documented an association between conformity to masculine gender norms and muscle dysmorphia symptomatology. However, much of this research has been limited to samples of men. To address this important gap in the research, the aim of this study was to determine the association between conformity to masculine gender norms and muscle dysmorphia symptomatology among a gender-diverse sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults. Data from the Canadian Study of Adolescent Health Behaviors (N = 2,719) were analyzed. Regression analyses were used to estimate the association between conformity to masculine gender norms and muscle dysmorphia symptomatology, clinical risk for muscle dysmorphia, and lifetime anabolic-androgenic steroid (AAS) use, among the overall sample and stratified by gender. Conformity to masculine gender norms was positively associated with muscle dysmorphia symptomatology, clinical risk for muscle dysmorphia, and lifetime AAS use among the sample. Moreover, findings were similar among boys and young men, girls and young women, and transgender/gender-expansive participants. Findings underscore the relevance of masculine gender norms in relation to the pursuit of muscularity among adolescents and young adults. Future research is needed to explore the specific mechanisms underlying the link between conformity to masculine gender norms and muscle dysmorphia symptomatology across genders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Meat consumption needs to be reduced to limit climate change but achieving this requires understanding the drivers of meat consumption. In this study, we investigated two potential drivers—a contextual threat to masculinity and the stable individual difference of masculine ideology—and how they predict meat-eating intentions, attitudes, and environmentalism. Employing a sample of 375 Australian men, a population known for its high meat consumption, we did not find support that a contextual threat to men's masculinity increased pro-meat attitudes or intentions. Instead, we found that prevailing views about masculine ideology significantly predicted meat-related attitudes and intentions, with avoidance of femininity associated with lower avoidance of meat and lower intentions to eat clean meat, and the endorsement of male dominance tied to lower pro-environmental responding. Our findings suggest that situational threats to masculinity may not robustly affect meat consumption intentions and highlight the importance of more stable individual differences in the conception of the male gender identity in maintaining men's high meat consumption. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The goal of the current study is to add to the literature on masculinity and mental well-being by examining the role of help-seeking self-stigma as a potential mediating mechanism linking conformity to masculine norms to depression and stress among men. Findings with a community sample of 326 U.S. men (aged 18–75 years old) revealed that greater endorsement of masculine norms was associated with greater help-seeking self-stigma. Additionally, help-seeking self-stigma significantly linked endorsement of masculinity norms to perceived stress, but not to depression. This study furthers our understanding of how gender roles may uniquely shape men's mental health experiences through creating barriers to seeking treatment. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research has linked the masculine gender role with negative attitudes towards condoms and a lower likelihood of condom use. Expanding the construct of sexual rejection sensitivity, we propose that men's greater precarious manhood beliefs will lead to greater condom rejection sensitivity, or anxiety about interpersonal rejection when negotiating condom use. Across two studies utilizing an undergraduate (Study 1; N = 382) and an online adult sample (Study 2; N = 347), cisgender men and women reported their precarious manhood beliefs (for women, their perception of their male partner's precarious manhood beliefs), condom rejection sensitivity, sexual rejection sensitivity, condom use, and sexual satisfaction in their most recent mixed-gender sexual encounter. We examined the associations between these variables using path analyses separated by gender. Across both studies, we found that, for women, greater perceived precarious manhood beliefs about their partner significantly predicted greater condom rejection sensitivity, which predicted a lower likelihood of condom use. For men, greater endorsement of precarious manhood beliefs significantly predicted greater sexual rejection sensitivity, which predicted lower sexual satisfaction. For men, greater condom rejection sensitivity also predicted a lower likelihood of condom use. These findings add to the literature on the role of masculine gender role ideology in men's and women's sexual, romantic, and health outcomes, with particular importance for women's condom negotiation and sexual health. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Gender categorization and stereotyping can lead to discrimination. Researchers have mostly studied cisgender, gender-conforming individuals as the targets when examining these processes. In two factorial survey experiments, we investigated gender categorization and stereotyping of gender-ambiguous targets based on facial features and behavioral information. We manipulated femininity/masculinity/ambiguity of face, expression, and occupation. Participants completed a gender categorization task, and stereotype and attitude measures. The findings indicated that face was most influential for categorization: When face was unambiguously masculine or feminine, participants mostly categorized targets as male or female, respectively. In these cases, expression and occupation had little influence on categorization. When face was ambiguous, this additional information significantly influenced categorization. Nonbinary categorization was more likely for ambiguous faces, and most likely for ambiguous faces combined with ambiguous expression and ambiguous or feminine occupation. Our findings suggest that categorizing gender-ambiguous targets is more complex compared to clearly gendered targets. Primarily relying on face when it appears clearly gendered likely causes categorization errors when encountering TGNC individuals. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the high risk that intimate partner violence poses to its victims, understanding factors which predict its enactment is critical. In the present research, we presented ostracism as a novel predictor of intimate partner violence perpetration by men through masculine gender role stress. We further examined the implications of ostracism-related intimate partner violence perpetration for men's mental health, specifically symptoms of depression and anxiety. We proposed that ostracism would predict more masculine gender role stress and intimate partner violence perpetration, which would then predict worse mental health. As expected, regression analyses revealed that ostracism was positively associated with masculine gender role stress, intimate partner violence perpetration, anxiety, and depression. Moreover, structural equation modeling provided preliminary support for our serial mediation model. The results revealed that masculine gender role stress and intimate partner violence perpetration serially mediated the relationship between ostracism and mental health. These findings offer significant theoretical implications to the fields of research on ostracism, masculinity, and intimate partner violence, particularly for the associations between them, as well as practical implications for clinicians related to potential mental health outcomes, and policymakers and activists in relation to real-world instances of intimate partner violence and gender violence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of masculine forms in job titles (e.g., fireman, salesman) can deter women from applying or being selected for certain positions. The current research investigated the degree to which masculine linguistic forms are effective as generics. An experiment (N = 273) assessed to what extent four linguistic forms of job titles in German—masculine, abbreviated form with slashes, gender neutral, or masculine with brackets (m/f/d)—are implicitly associated with women and men using an Implicit Association Test. Masculine job titles were more strongly associated with men relative to women. In contrast, job titles using the slash form and gender-neutral form eliminated this male bias in implicit associations. The masculine form with brackets (m/f/d) produced similar effects to the conventional masculine form, and as such, was also ineffective in reducing a male bias. The present work contributes to the growing literature on the role of gender-inclusive language in recruitment and selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Research shows that women and men have different attitudes toward food and eating habits, which may stem from societal gender roles. In most societies, eating meat is associated with masculinity, and choosing healthy and smaller meals is perceived as feminine. These stereotypes may affect eating behaviors, which may have an impact on health and well-being as well as on the environment and economy. We conducted two studies that focused on the perceptions and experiences of vegans and vegetarians (veg*ns) using a gender lens. The first study (N = 1048) used a quantitative design to investigate the association of a vegan/ vegetarian diet with gender stereotypes and the quality of personal relationships. The second study used a qualitative design with six 6-person focus groups (N = 36) to examine the experience of vegetarians with stereotypes associated with their diet and the possible links to gender roles. Results suggest that men following a vegan diet are not perceived as masculine, and vegans/ vegetarians themselves experience gender stereotypes related to diminished masculinity. Our research confirms that the interplay of diet, the role of meat in society, and gender stereotypes have consequences both for the social perception of people who follow a vegan/ vegetarian diet and for the experiences of the vegan/ vegetarian community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Due to the initial focus on women as targets for the HPV vaccination program in the U.S., many U.S. men now report that the HPV vaccine is somehow "feminine," posing a potential threat to men's masculine reputation. This threat was expected to be particularly strong for men from honor cultures, which place a strong emphasis on men's avoidance of "feminine" behaviors. We hypothesized that endorsement of honor norms and values would be linked with less support for men's HPV vaccination, lower HPV vaccination rates, and less support for the authorization of the HPV vaccination for sons. Using a cross-sectional analysis of both individual-level data collected from U.S. participants (total N = 367) and regional U.S. data, we found a link between individual-level honor endorsement and decreased support for male HPV vaccinations (Study 1) and lower levels of male HPV vaccination in an honor-endorsing region (Study 2). Finally, we found that the link between honor endorsement and decreased support for vaccinating sons in a sample of non-parents/parents of daughters, as well as the link between honor endorsement and son's HPV vaccination status, were both explained by HPV vaccination stigma (Study 3). Findings suggest that honor endorsement may play a significant role in keeping men from seeking the HPV vaccination and authorizing the HPV vaccination for their sons. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individuals who conform strongly to masculine norms tend to have more mental health problems relative to other individuals. However, knowledge about the contribution of conformity to masculine norms to military-related posttraumatic sequelae among women combat veterans is sparse. This study examines the contribution of conformity to masculine norms to posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and complex PTSD symptoms among women veterans as well as the mediating roles of coping strategies in these possible associations. A volunteer, community sample of Israeli women combat veterans (n = 885) and non-combat veterans (n = 728) responded to on-line self-report questionnaires in a cross-sectional study. Combat veterans reported higher levels of conformity to masculine norms and PTSD symptoms, but not complex PTSD symptoms and coping strategies, as compared to non-combat veterans. Moreover, among combat and noncombat veterans, conformity to masculine norms was associated with higher levels of PTSD and complex PTSD symptoms, beyond adverse childhood experiences and combat exposure. Importantly, conformity to masculine norms was indirectly associated with higher levels of PTSD and complex PTSD symptoms through maladaptive coping strategies, for both combat and noncombat veterans. Overall, women combat veterans were more likely to endorse masculine norms that are associated with higher levels of PTSD and complex PTSD symptoms. Moreover, maladaptive coping strategies might serve as mechanisms that link conformity to masculine norms to military-related posttraumatic consequences and warrants further investigation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Existing research on singlehood has largely focused on the experiences of single women, and little is known about singlehood among men. The current investigation examined the experience of long-term singlehood through individual, semi-structured interviews with 22 never-married single men living in Poland who were aged 22–43 years. Thematic analysis revealed five key themes: (1) the sense of being deficient—is there something wrong with me?; (2) navigating outside the dominant discourse of traditional masculinity, marriage and family; (3) the benefits and downsides of singlehood; (4) adaptation to singlehood; and (5) the dilemma between waiting and actively searching for a romantic partner. An analysis of single men's narratives revealed that men experience their single status in the context of their various needs and hopes and as a status that determines their adult life course. This study contributes to the singlehood literature, highlighting the complexity of singlehood for men and the importance of traditional masculinity norms in experiencing long-term singlehood. These findings challenge stereotypical and unrealistic views of singlehood among men and have practical implications for psychotherapists, counsellors and educators working with single men. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The current study presents a longitudinal analysis of the gender integration process in mixed-gender combat units by focusing on the antecedents of dropout intentions. A total of 295 men and women soldiers participated in the study, completing questionnaires at three points during eight months of basic and advanced combat training process. The results revealed a converging similarity between men's and women's dropout intentions over time. Perceived physical health and unit prestige contributed significantly to dropout intentions at T1 and T2. In addition, soldier perception of unit prestige negatively predicted dropout intentions at T1 but was non-significant at T2 and T3. Furthermore, masculine norms predicted dropout intentions at T2 but were non-significant at T3. The findings suggest the occurrence of a gradual socialization and self-selecting out process during training. We discuss the results through a gender lens and consider the applications of this research for reducing dropout intentions in gender-integrated combat units. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined whether gay men (Studies 1–2) and lesbian women (Study 1) who harbor internalized stigma due to their sexuality will desire a romantic relationship that reflects conventional, complementary gender roles where one partner is stereotypically feminine and the other is stereotypically masculine, in terms of both personality traits and division of household labor. Results showed that, among gay men with high (but not low) internalized stigma, self-ascribed masculinity was positively related to preferences for an ideal partner with stereotypically feminine traits. Preferences for partners with gender complementary traits did not emerge among women, or among men high in self-ascribed femininity. Contrary to predictions, internalized stigma was not associated with preferences for a gender-complementary division of household chores. Instead, internalized stigma was associated with the avoidance of tasks that are stereotypically gender incongruent—women high (vs. low) in stigma preferred for the partner (vs. self) to do so-called masculine (but not feminine) chores, whereas men high (vs. low) in stigma preferred for the partner (vs. self) to do stereotypically feminine (but not masculine) chores. Study 2 also included an experimental manipulation to test whether these effects were influenced by societal exclusion or acceptance, but there was no evidence of this. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous studies on minority stress suggest that internalized anti-gay prejudice and masculinity are positively related to high-risk behaviors, including heavy alcohol consumption, drug use/abuse, and high-risk sex, among sexual minority men. However, less is known about the dyadic influences of these relations among cisgender male couples. The current study aims to address this gap and explore the effects of marginalized racial status and being in an interracial relationship on these associations. We recruited 296 cisgender men from the United States who were in a relationship with another man. Of those 296 individuals, 103 couples (n = 206) completed a dyadic survey. Using both individual and dyadic datasets, we tested the associations between internalized anti-gay prejudice and masculinity and high-risk behaviors at both individual- and couple-levels, along with the racial moderators. We used path modeling and actor-partner interdependence modeling to analyze the results. The results demonstrated that internalized anti-gay prejudice was positively associated with drug use and high-risk sexual behaviors at the individual level, as well as at the dyadic level (i.e., partner effects). Moreover, participants who identified as a racially marginalized person and scored higher on internalized anti-gay prejudice were more likely to use drugs and to positively influence their partner's high-risk sexual behaviors. Theoretical contributions to the minority stress models (both individual and dyadic versions) and practical implications for risk mitigation interventions were discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study utilized a social constructivist lens to explore African American heterosexual men's attitudes toward marriage and provide an understanding of how African American heterosexual men conceptualize themselves in the context of marriage. Focus groups were conducted with African American heterosexual men aged 24–34 years old from a large, metropolitan midwestern city (N = 17). Participants were asked how they felt about marriage, how they thought their peers feel about marriage, and the positive and negative attributes of marriage. Thematic analysis revealed several themes including struggles of Black masculinity, dilemmas within the Black male-female dynamic, and role confusion; resulting in personal ambivalence about their decision to enter into marriage. Findings suggest that their conceptions of manhood in the context of American racism is the pretext that plays a significant role in the decision to take on important roles such as husband. Using Powell and Mattis (2005) Relational Framework of Masculinity, I discuss how African American men's conceptualization of manhood may contribute to how these men engage with significant life transitions, such as marriage. Suggestions for future research and practice implications for work with African American heterosexual men is also discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Precarious manhood theory posits that manhood is socially constructed and must be earned by acquiring masculine capital. Previous research has suggested that there may be a link between threatened masculinity and a higher drive for muscularity. The current study tested this hypothesis experimentally. Methods: Male undergraduate students (N = 395) were either told that they did poorly on a cognitive task explicitly tied to a masculinity norm (i.e., future earning potential) or they were not given any feedback. Results: Participants in the masculinity threat condition subsequently reported a higher drive for muscularity than did those in the control condition. Sexual orientation did not moderate this effect. Discussion: One of the ways in which men feel that they must earn masculine capital is by having a muscular body. Drive for muscularity is heightened in situations that prime threatened masculinity. The current findings imply practice implications for men struggling with negative body image. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study tested whether differences in cultural beliefs about manhood can explain the large cultural variability in attitudes and social policies regarding sexual and gender minorities. If people believe manhood is an easily threatened, precarious social status (Vandello et al., 2008), then LGBTQ + groups may be targets of derogation as symbolic threats to masculinity and men's distinctiveness. In a large pre-registered cross-cultural study of 62 countries, we tested whether country-level precarious manhood beliefs were associated with more negative attitudes, fewer rights, more restrictive laws, and less safety toward LGBTQ + groups. Hypotheses were largely supported, and these negative relationships generally held when controlling for religiosity, cultural tightness, traditional and security-related values, gender inequality, and sexism. Results suggest that the fates of societies' most vulnerable gender and sexuality groups are related to societies' beliefs about manhood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholarly work and public commentary point to the persistence of masculinity models characterized by a sense of entitlement, the exertion of dominance, and the justification of abusive behaviors. While there is abundant theoretical work on men and masculinities, fewer empirical studies have examined how young men develop their masculine ideals. In this study, we theorize the role of fathers' adherence to masculinity ideology in influencing the development of young men's masculine ideals. We then provide novel empirical evidence on intergenerational congruence between fathers' and sons' masculinities using unique data from an Australian national probability survey. Our results reveal moderate, positive associations between fathers' and sons' adherence to masculinity ideology. This pattern holds for an overall measure of masculinity, as well as for each of its subscales. Fathers' religiosity amplified the magnitude of the intergenerational correlation. These findings suggest that interventions aimed at encouraging the development of healthy masculinities amongst young men should engage their paternal figures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Manhood is a precarious state that men seek to prove through the performance of masculine behaviors—including, at times, acts of aggression. Although correlational work has demonstrated a link between chronic masculine insecurity and political aggression (i.e., support for policies and candidates that communicate toughness and strength), experimental work on the topic is sparse. Existing studies also provide little insight into which men—liberal or conservative—are most likely to display increased political aggression after threats to their masculinity. The present work thus examines the effects of masculinity threat on liberal and conservative men's tendency toward political aggression. We exposed liberal and conservative men to various masculinity threats, providing them with feminine feedback about their personality traits (Experiment 1), having them paint their nails (Experiment 2), and leading them to believe that they were physically weak (Experiment 3). Across experiments, and contrary to our initial expectations, threat increased liberal—but not conservative—men's preference for a wide range of aggressive political policies and behaviors (e.g., the death penalty, bombing an enemy country). Integrative data analysis (IDA) reveals significant heterogeneity in the influence of different threats on liberal men's political aggression, the most effective of which was intimations of physical weakness. A multiverse analysis suggests that these findings are robust across a range of reasonable data-treatment and modeling choices. Possible sources of liberal men's heightened responsiveness to manhood threats are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Previous research shows that men eat more meat than women. We explore the extent to which self-rated gender typicality explains differences in meat consumption intentions and behaviour. We recruited a large sample (N = 4897) of Australian men and women to complete an online survey about their attitudes and intentions regarding meat consumption and abstention and measured their self-rated gender typicality (the extent men view themselves as masculine, and women view themselves as feminine). We used moderated regression analyses to investigate self-rated gender typicality as a moderator of the relationship between gender and meat-related variables. We demonstrated that for men, identifying as more masculine was associated with a lower likelihood of reducing meat consumption or considering veg*nism, and a greater belief that eating meat is normal. We also found that men, and those with more gender-typical self-ratings (regardless of gender), viewed meat as more natural, necessary, and nice. These findings suggest that self-rated gender typicality may be relevant for understanding gender differences in meat consumption behaviours. Appeals to adopt low- or no-meat diets may be more effective if they consider the ways Australian diets are interconnected with genders and identities. Increasing acceptance of alternative masculinities, and developing masculinity-friendly advertising of plant-based foods, could be useful in promoting meat reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines a case of internet posts discussing social issues affecting men and masculinity. Analysis of 500 posts containing masculine coded language on the subreddit r/unpopularopinion suggests that masculinity, especially when intersected with straightness and whiteness, is discursively constructed in an imagined social hierarchy where the plight of straight white men is invisible. By framing opinions as "unpopular," these posts suggest that while the poster's view may be objectively true, it is disvalued in mainstream discourses. Three key findings emerged from this analysis: First, regardless of the particular social issue discussed, efforts to reduce social inequality were negatively evaluated on average. Second, negative posts were more popular on the site; thus, amplifying the visibility of grievances. Third, masculine coded language is structured on Reddit, such that certain issues are bundled together to generate salient, interlocking themes indicating a robust meaning system. Overall, these findings suggest that criticisms of social equality are embedded within a discourse of threatened masculinity, straightness, and whiteness. This research extends past work on internet discursive practices related to masculinity and gender by showing the pervasiveness and intersectional nature of masculinity threat in digital forms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There is increased acceptance of gay men in most Western societies. Nevertheless, evidence suggests that feminine-presenting gay men are still disadvantaged compared to gay men who present in a more traditionally masculine way. Though gay men themselves may be complicit in perpetuating this bias, studies that demonstrate this possibility are scant. Whereas most studies on perceptions of feminine-presenting gay men have manipulated gender nonconformity via written descriptions, research suggests that behavioural cues such as voice and body-language can mitigate or exacerbate prejudice toward a stereotyped individual. In the current study, audio-visual stimuli were created to investigate how masculine versus feminine behaviour would impact status endowment from other gay and heterosexual men. In total, 256 men (Mage = 42.73, SD = 14.48: half gay; half heterosexual) cast, from a selection of six video-taped candidates, one gay man to play a lead role in a purported ad for a tourism campaign. In the videos, the actors delivered a script related to the tourism campaign in a manner where their voice and body-language was manipulated to come across as either masculine or feminine-presenting. Findings indicated that gay and heterosexual participants showed a significant preference for the masculine videoclips. For heterosexual men, the preference for masculine-presenting actors was predicted by greater anti-gay sentiment, whereas internalised anti-gay prejudice did not predict a preference for masculine-presentation among gay men. Implications of the findings for discourse and education on intraminority prejudice and suggestions for future research are offered. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Regional Australian masculinities are typified by 'traditional' values (e.g., stoicism, self-reliance) known to restrict social connectedness. Thus, these masculinities have been implicated in worsening men's mental health. What remains unclear, however, is how men living in inner-regional communities (i.e., townships on the fringes of major cities) might uniquely experience masculinity, social connectedness, and mental health. We interviewed 29 boys/men and one non-binary participant (Mage = 43.77 years) living in the Macedon Ranges (an inner-regional Australian community). Using reflexive thematic analysis, we generated three themes. Participants described inner-regional masculinities as traditional and rigid, and attributed the Macedon Ranges' comparatively high suicide rate to these masculinities. Conversely, migration from the neighbouring city of Melbourne was implicated in introducing more inclusive masculinities to the area that conflicted with existing masculine norms. Thus, Macedon Ranges men were framed as ultimately lacking a cohesive community identity. Proximity to Melbourne was described as encouraging local men to commute daily for work instead of working locally, thereby further weakening community identity. Overall, these phenomena were implicated in damaging the psychosocial wellbeing of local men via reducing social connectedness. Because men's mental illness is so pervasive within regional Australian communities, these findings have direct implications for policymakers. Namely, policies need to acknowledge that masculinities directly influence mental health and that inner-regional masculinities are impacted by unique place-based considerations distinct from men living in other regional communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Masculinity contest culture (MCC), which refers to a dysfunctional organizational culture, is correlated with more frequent interpersonal mistreatment (e.g., sexual harassment and bullying) and lower levels of occupational and psychological well-being. The present cross-sectional study using a convenience sample of Chinese working women (N = 694) investigated the mediating role of interpersonal mistreatment in the association between MCC and psychological well-being, as well as potential individual and organizational moderators. Moderated mediation analyses revealed that organizational tolerance for sexual harassment (OTSH) and targets' position in the organization moderated the links between MCC and interpersonal mistreatment. Specifically, the association between MCC and sexual harassment experiences was stronger when women held higher positions in organizations with greater OTSH. While OTSH also strengthened the association between MCC and bullying, position in the organization was not correlated with bullying and did not moderate the link between MCC and bullying. The results also provided evidence for the indirect effects of MCC on psychological well-being via sexual harassment and bullying; these indirect effects were larger via bullying than sexual harassment. Our findings demonstrate the importance of organizational culture and climate for women's well-being and may inform recommendations for promoting a climate of respect and justice in the workplace. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Educating boys about consent in schools in England is required as part of the now-statutory Relationships, Sex, and Health Education curriculum and, moreover, is considered important for addressing sexual violence, abuse, and harassment among young people. The present paper draws on qualitative data collected in three schools in southeast England to explore how boys are being taught about consent and how they relate to and interpret educational messages about consent in terms of their sociosexual subjectivities and peer sexual cultures. Data was collected during May–June 2022 through classroom observations, focus groups with boys, and discussions with teachers in a co-educational academy, a boys' academy, and a boys' independent school, all in southeast England. The data suggests that while typical consent education messages may rationalise or provide a 'road map' for consent, the boys felt uncertain and anxious about navigating the perceived, often anticipated, realities of youth sexual culture. The framing of sexual activity as only consensual, and thus legitimate, if there is a clear and direct yes, conflicted with these realities. As supposed initiators of sex, as masculine heterosexual subjects, the boys felt a responsibility for obtaining consent yet seemed to lack confidence regarding the socio-affective skills required for doing so. The paper calls for an integrated model of consent education that addresses knowledge, skills (including emotional literacy), and the normative contextual contingencies that constrain the operation of free choice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The sex-role mediation hypothesis suggests that a masculine self-concept promotes male-typed cognition, including spatial skills. Support for the hypothesis is mixed, limited by small samples and the spatial skills examined, with few studies exploring the role of gendered activities, experiences, and interests (e.g., Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics [STEM] college majors). Therefore, in a sample of 339 undergraduate students, a series of regression analyses with bootstrapped-based estimation of indirect effects was used to determine whether self-perceived masculinity was related to three-dimensional (3D) mental rotations, geographical knowledge, identifying the true horizontal, and object location memory via major 'STEM-ness.' Spatial skills and masculinity were consistently positively related, except for object location memory, which is the only spatial skill examined where women, on average, outperform men. Moreover, the link between some spatial skills (3D mental rotations, identifying the true horizontal) and masculinity partially occurred via major STEM-ness. Findings are novel in revealing associations among masculinity, spatial skills, and STEM interests, and are somewhat consistent with the sex-role mediation hypothesis. They also encourage future longitudinal studies to examine whether masculinity predicts or is predicted by spatial skills, and they may have downstream implications for reducing gender disparities in STEM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Over a half century of research has identified constellations of rigid, sexist, and hegemonic beliefs about how men should think, feel, and behave within Western societies (i.e., traditional masculine ideologies; TMI). However, there is a dearth of literature examining why people adhere to TMI. Within in this study, we examined TMI from an identity perspective. Specifically, we focused on the concepts of identity exploration and identity commitment to identify distinct identity statuses based on Marcia's (1966) identity status theory. Our sample (N = 1136) was composed of college and community cisgender women (n = 890) and cisgender men (n = 244) in the United States. We conducted a Latent Profile Analysis (LPA) to allow identity status groups to naturally emerge based on levels of identity exploration and commitment. A three-class solution emerged as the best fit to the data. Individuals in the foreclosed status (i.e., high commitment but low exploration) scored higher on all seven TMI domains and lower on feminist attitudes compared to those who were high in exploration but low in identity commitment (i.e., identity moratorium). However, there was no difference between individuals high in both identity commitment and exploration (i.e., identity achievement) and the identity foreclosed individuals on feminist attitudes and three of seven dimensions of TMI. Implications and future directions are discussed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Bodybuilding is an increasingly popular sport in the United States. Across fields of psychology, history, sociology, and anthropology, bodybuilding has been examined as being related to, or as manifestly being, a pathology. Extant work on men who are bodybuilders are often built on the assumption that narcissism, self-doubt, and insecurity are the driving forces for men's involvement. The present study sought to examine the experiences of eleven men who have competed in bodybuilding competitions. In contrast to the dominant academic discourse on bodybuilding as an embodiment of toxic masculinity or as a reaction to underlying feelings of inferiority, the study participants described friendly, supportive competition contexts. That such feelings were found backstage, as opposed to in a gym, strengthens the need for a more nuanced distinction between bodybuilding as a culture, and bodybuilding as a sport. This study disrupts dominant narratives of bodybuilding as pathological and contributes to work on the construction of gender and masculinity in sport. The present work suggests a scholarly approach to men's bodybuilding in an open and nuanced manner that does not focus on pathologizing bodybuilding or competition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Millions of men in the US experience substance abuse and impulse control disorders, which is well researched. Far fewer scholars have studied the millions of men that also experience depression (which is traditionally associated with women). Drawing upon literature on fragile masculinity and masculinity threat, we evaluate the role of endorsing hegemonic masculinity ideals (e.g., men should be strong, unemotional, and financially secure) in both internalizing (depression) and externalizing (anger) mental health problems, focusing on older White men aged 70–74 in the Wisconsin Longitudinal Survey (N = 1,794). In addition to predicting mental health among older men according to their agreement with hegemonic masculinity ideals, we examine the impact of two potential threats to masculinity: health and wealth decline. We find that endorsement of hegemonic masculinity ideals is positively associated with externalizing and internalizing symptoms and that the association between hegemonic masculinity ideals and depressive symptoms is even stronger for men who perceive their health to be declining and those who have lost wealth. We conclude that endorsement of rigid hegemonic masculinity ideals negatively impacts older men's mental health, especially when they experience challenges to their self-perception as strong, independent, and self-reliant. We provide suggestions as to how improving our understanding of the association between masculinity beliefs and mental health can inform clinical practice as well as public health and public policy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]