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Studies over the last 40 years have mainly investigated sleep structure changes as a result of wake duration, in the frame of the classical sleep regulation theories. However, wake intervals of the same duration can profoundly differ in their intensity, which actually reflects the degree of cognitive and physical activity. Data on how sleep can be modified by wake intensity changes (initially sparse and of little consistence) have become much more substantial, especially in the frame of the intense research debate on sleep-memory relationships. Our aim is to examine the vast repertoire of sleep modifications that depend on waking cognitive manipulations, highlighting the sleep features that appear most affected. By systematically addressing this issue, we want to set the basis for future research exploring both the specific nature of the mechanisms involved and the applicative psychosocial and clinical fall-outs, in terms of possible behavioural interventions for sleep quality improvement.

Italy and Belgium have been among the first western countries to face the Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) emergency, imposing a total lockdown over the entire national territories. These limitations have proven effective in slowing down the spread of the infection. However, the benefits obtained in public health have come with huge costs in terms of social, economic, and psychological well-being. In the current study, we aimed to investigate how the period of home confinement affected self-reported sleep characteristics in Italians and Belgians, with special regard to sleep timing and subjective quality. Using an online survey we collected data from 2272 participants, 1622 Italians (Mage = 34.1 ± 13.6 years, 1171 F), and 650 Belgian (Mage = 43.0 ± 16.8 years, 509 F). Participants reported their sleep pattern (eg, bedtime, risetime) and perceived sleep quality during and, retrospectively, before the lockdown. During the lockdown, sleep timing was significantly delayed, time spent in bed increased, and sleep quality was markedly impaired in both Italians and Belgians. The most vulnerable individuals appeared to be women, subjects experiencing a more negative mood, and those perceiving the pandemic situation as highly stressful. However, the two samples differed in the subgroups most affected by the changes, possibly because of the different welfare systems of the two countries. In fact, in the Italian sample sleep quality and timing underwent significant modifications especially in unemployed participants, whereas in the Belgian sample this category was the one who suffered less from the restrictions. Considering that the novel coronavirus has spread across the whole globe, involving countries with different types of health and welfare systems, understanding which policy measures have the most effective protective role on physical and mental health is of primary importance.

This paper summarizes the main aspects of sleep and waking development and shows results about awakening as a function of age. Awakenings come mainly from active sleep and their number decreases with age. Understanding the awakening process should take into account the development of sleep and waking states and of circadian rhythms and homeostatic processes.