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Magnifying optical assemblies used for weapon guidance or rifle scopes may possess a threat for a combat vehicle and its personnel. Detection and localisation of optical threats is consequently of interest in military applications. Typically a laser system is used in optics detection, or optical augmentation, to interrogate a scene of interest to localise retroreflected laser radiation. One interesting approach for implementing optics detection on a combat vehicle is to use a continuous scanning scheme. In addition, optics detection can be combined with laser countermeasures, or a laser dazzling function, to efficiently counter an optical threat. An optics detection laser sensor demonstrator has been implemented on a combat vehicle. The sensor consists of a stabilised gimbal and was integrated together with a LEMUR remote electro-optical sight. A narrow laser slit is continuously scanned around the horizon to detect and locate optical threats. Detected threats are presented for the operator within the LEMUR presentation system, and by cueing a countermeasure laser installed in the LEMUR sensor housing threats can be defeated. Results obtained during a field demonstration of the optics detection sensor and the countermeasure laser will be presented. In addition, results obtained using a dual-channel optics detection system designed for false alarm reduction are also discussed.

For performance modelling of optical countermeasure systems simulation of turbulence effects is necessary. Physical optics numerical beam propagation using phase screens is an established method in this respect. In some cases a short sequence of temporally resolved phase screens is available from Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations or from wavefront sensor measurements. It is, however, seldom possible to provide enough sequences and sufficient sequence length for Monte Carlo simulations of system performance utilizing these methods. Therefore, we have investigated the possibility to generate an arbitrary number of longer temporal sequences of phase screens with the same statistical properties for simulation of turbulence, based on an available short phase screen sequence. The method apply Proper Orthogonal Decomposition (POD), a method used to generate orthogonal modes from a dataset. For discretely sampled sequences the Singular Value Decomposition (SVD) algorithm is suitable to extract the set of POD modes. This scheme provides a separate temporal sequence of coefficients for each spatial mode. The next step is to generate new, longer temporal sequences of coefficients with the same statistical properties as those extracted by the SVD algorithm. Finally a new sequence of phase screens is generated by adding all spatial modes. The method is illustrated using data from CFD calculations of a down-scaled jet engine plume. The method is especially suitable for very strong localized turbulence as in aero optics and engine exhaust plumes, but may be useful also for extended turbulence. The use to generate Power-In-Bucket (PIB) sequences for evaluation of turbulence distortion effects is demonstrated. PIB is an important quantity when evaluating e.g. the performance of directed infrared countermeasure (DIRCM) systems.

The hot exhaust gases from engines on helicopters are pushed down by the rotor in a turbulent flow. When the optical path of a laser beam or optical sensor passes through this region severe aberrations of the optical field may result. These perturbations will lead to beam wander and beam distortions that can limit the performance of optical countermeasure systems. To quantify these effects the Italian Air Force Flight Test Centre hosted a trial for the “Airborne platform effects on lasers and warning sensors” (ALWS) EDA-project. Laser beams were propagated from the airport control tower to a target screen in a slant path with the helicopter hovering over this path. Collimated laser beams at 1.55-, 2- and 4.6-μm wavelength were imaged with high speed cameras. Large increases in beam wander and beam divergence were found, with beam wander up to 200 μrad root-mean-square and increases in beam divergence up to 1 mrad. To allow scaling to other laser beam parameters and geometries formulas for propagation in atmospheric turbulence were used even though the turbulence may not follow Kolmogorov statistics. By assuming that the plume is short compared to the total propagation distance the integrated structure parameter through the plume could be calculated. Values in the range 10 -10 to 10 -8 m 1/3 were found when the laser beams passed through the exhaust gases below the helicopter tail. The integrated structure parameter values calculated from beam wander were consistently lower than those calculated from long term spot size, indicating that the method is not perfect but provides information about order of magnitudes. The measured results show that the engine exhaust for worst case beam directions will dominate over atmospheric turbulence even for kilometer path lengths from a helicopter at low altitude. How severe the effect is on system performance will depend on beam and target parameters.

The performance of electro-optical platform protection systems can be degraded significantly by the propagation environment around the platform. This includes aero-optical effects and zones of severe turbulence generated by engine exhausts. For helicopters rotor tip vortices and engine exhaust gases that are pressed down by the rotor airflow form the so called downwash phenomena. The downwash is a source for perturbations. A wide range of spatial and temporal fluctuations in the refractive index of air can occur. The perturbations from the turbulent flow cause detrimental effects on energy delivery, angle of arrival fluctuations, jam-code transmission, tracking accuracy and imaging performance in general. Therefore the effects may especially have a severe impact on the performance of laser-based protection systems like directed infrared countermeasures (DIRCM). The chain from passive missile detection and warning to obtaining an optical break-lock by the use of an active laser system will be influenced. To anticipate the installed performance of an electro-optical defensive aids suite (DAS) for helicopter platforms it is necessary to develop models for the prediction of the perturbations. Modelled results have to be validated against experimental findings. However, the data available in open literature on the effects of rotor downwash from helicopters on optical propagation is very limited. To collect necessary data and to obtain a first impression about the magnitude of occurring effects the European defence agency group (EDA) on “airborne platform effects on lasers and warning sensors (ALWS)” decided to design and perform a field trial on the premises of the Italian Air Force Flight Test Center in Pratica di Mare, Italy. ALWS is a technical arrangement under the Europa MoU among France, Germany, Italy, Sweden and the United Kingdom.

Snipers and other optically guided weapon systems are serious threats in military operations. We have studied a SWIR (Short Wave Infrared) camera-based system with capability to detect and locate snipers both before and after shot over a large field-of-view. The high frame rate SWIR-camera allows resolution of the temporal profile of muzzle flashes which is the infrared signature associated with the ejection of the bullet from the rifle. The capability to detect and discriminate sniper muzzle flashes with this system has been verified by FOI in earlier studies. In this work we have extended the system by adding a laser channel for optics detection. A laser diode with slit-shaped beam profile is scanned over the camera field-of-view to detect retro reflection from optical sights. The optics detection system has been tested at various distances up to 1.15 km showing the feasibility to detect rifle scopes in full daylight. The high speed camera gives the possibility to discriminate false alarms by analyzing the temporal data. The intensity variation, caused by atmospheric turbulence, enables discrimination of small sights from larger reflectors due to aperture averaging, although the targets only cover a single pixel. It is shown that optics detection can be integrated in combination with muzzle flash detection by adding a scanning rectangular laser slit. The overall optics detection capability by continuous surveillance of a relatively large field-of-view looks promising. This type of multifunctional system may become an important tool to detect snipers before and after shot.

We have investigated the possibilities of using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulations to characterize the impact of refractive index fluctuations in a jet engine plume on Directed InfraRed CounterMeasure (DIRCM) system performance. The jet plume was modelled using both Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) and Large Eddy Simulation (LES) formulations of Navier-Stokes equations. The RANS calculations provided a time-averaged description of the refractive index and the turbulence strength. The more computationally intense LES model provided time resolved data on large scale turbulent eddies within the engine plume. The smaller structures are assumed to be isotropic and are modelled implicitly to reduce the computational demands to levels feasible for current computational hardware. The refractive index data from the CFD calculations was integrated along the optical propagation path to produce phase screens. For RANS data this approach provided time averaged aberrations, whereas for LES data the temporal variation of low spatial frequency aberrations were available for a short time sequence. Modal descriptions of the phase screens were investigated to allow study of temporal variation at longer time scales. Alternatively the structure parameter (Cn2) can be estimated and used to provide order of magnitude approximations for the optical effects. The generated phase screens were used to calculate laser beam system level quality parameters including beam wander, fidelity ratio and power-in-bucket. The paper focuses on method development, but examples of a jet plume simulation showing that the engine plume turbulence has a significant impact on DIRCM system functionality are presented.

Detection and localisation of optical assemblies used for weapon guidance or sniper rifle scopes has attracted interest for security and military applications. Typically a laser system is used to interrogate a scene of interest and the retro-reflected radiation is detected. Different system approaches for area coverage can be realised ranging from flood illumination to step-and-stare or continuous scanning schemes. Independently of the chosen approach target discrimination is a crucial issue, particularly if a complex scene such as in an urban environment and autonomous operation is considered. In this work target discrimination strategies in optics detection are discussed. Typical parameters affecting the reflected laser radiation from the target are the wavelength, polarisation properties, temporal effects and the range resolution. Knowledge about the target characteristics is important to predict the target discrimination capability. Two different systems were used to investigate polarisation properties and range resolution information from targets including e.g. road signs, optical reflexes, rifle sights and optical references. The experimental results and implications on target discrimination will be discussed. If autonomous operation is required target discrimination becomes critical in order to reduce the number of false alarms.

Tomographic signal processing is used to transform multiple one-dimensional range profiles of a target from different angles to a two-dimensional image of the object. The range profiles are measured by a time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) laser radar system with approximately 50 ps range resolution and a field of view that is wide compared to the measured objects. Measurements were performed in a lab environment with the targets mounted on a rotation stage. We show successful reconstruction of 2D-projections along the rotation axis of a boat model and removal of artefacts using a mask based on the convex hull. The independence of spatial resolution and the high sensitivity at a first glance makes this an interesting technology for very long range identification of passing objects such as high altitude UAVs and orbiting satellites but also the opposite problem of ship identification from high altitude platforms. To obtain an image with useful information measurements from a large angular sector around the object is needed, which is hard to obtain in practice. Examples of reconstructions using 90 and 150° sectors are given. In addition, the projection of the final image is along the rotation axis for the measurement and if this is not aligned with a major axis of the target the image information is limited. There are also practical problems to solve, for example that the distance from the sensor to the rotation centre needs to be known with an accuracy corresponding to the measurement resolution. The conclusion is that that laser radar tomography is useful only when the sensor is fixed and the target rotates around its own axis.

Detection of optical assemblies is important in revealing threats arising from snipers or other weapons guided by optical means. Several approaches can be imagined using flood illumination or scanning laser techniques. One challenging problem in optics detection applications in urban environments, particular if an autonomous approach is chosen, is to reduce the false alarm rate. In this work a dual channel approach for optics detection using a narrow scanning rectangular laser beam is described. One channel is used for locating targets in the vertical direction while a second channel simultaneously determines the distance to the targets. An experimental system consisting of two channels operating at 0.8 micrometer wavelength was used to study the characteristics of different targets such as road signs, optical reflexes, rifle sights, optical references and backgrounds at different ranges and in different environments. Schemes for refining the target discrimination, reducing the false alarm rate and improving the performance are discussed using experimental results. A dual channel approach is suggested to improve capabilities in optics detection using a scanning rectangular laser beam.

Photon counting techniques using direct detection has recently gained considerable interest within the laser radar community. The high sensitivity is of special importance to achieve high area coverage in surveillance and mapping applications and long range with compact systems for imaging, profiling and ranging. New short pulse lasers including the super continuum laser is of interest for active spectral imaging. A special technique in photon counting is the "time correlated single photon counting" (TCSPC). This can be utilized together with short pulse (ps) lasers to achieve very high range resolution and accuracy (mm level). Low average power lasers in the mW range enables covert operation with respect to present laser warning technology. By analyzing the return waveform range and shape information from the target can be extracted. By scanning the beam high resolution 3D images are obtained. At FOI we have studied the TCSPC with respect to range profiling and imaging. Limitations due to low SNR and dwell times are studied in conjunction with varying daylight background and atmospheric turbulence. Examples of measurements will be presented and discussed with respect to some system applications.

A time-correlated single-photon counting (TCSPC) laser radar system can be used for range profiling of objects with high time resolution and dynamic range. A system setup is described and daytime outdoor measurements over distances up to 1 km are presented. The system has 114 ps full width half maximum system response, indicating a Rayleigh criterion resolution of two surfaces separated by 17 mm and much better with more advanced signal processing methods. The high dynamic range and time resolution allows measurement of distances between different optical surfaces in objects such as optical sights. The system thus has a potential use to classify objects and remove false alarms in an optics detection system. Effects of atmospheric turbulence and background radiation in daytime conditions are analyzed. A method for determining the scintillation index in noisy data using the temporal autocorrelation is described. System performance calculations based on measured data indicate that the performance necessary to detect characteristic features of optical sights and other retroreflecting objects may be found in reasonable dwell times well below 100 ms.

Atmospheric turbulence effects close to ground may affect the performance of laser based systems severely. The variations in the refractive index along the propagation path cause effects such as beam wander, intensity fluctuations (scintillations) and beam broadening. Typical geometries of interest for optics detection include nearly horizontal propagation paths close to the ground and up to kilometre distance to the target. The scintillations and beam wander affect the performance in terms of detection probability and false alarm rate. Of interest is to study the influence of turbulence in optics detection applications. In a field trial atmospheric turbulence effects along a 1 kilometre horizontal propagation path were studied using a diode laser with a rectangular beam profile operating at 0.8 micrometer wavelength. Single-path beam characteristics were registered and analysed using photodetectors arranged in horizontal and vertical directions. The turbulence strength along the path was determined using a scintillometer and single-point ultrasonic anemometers. Strong scintillation effects were observed as a function of the turbulence strength and amplitude characteristics were fitted to model distributions. In addition to the single-path analysis double-path measurements were carried out on different targets. Experimental results are compared with existing theoretical turbulence laser beam propagation models. The results show that influence from scintillations needs to be considered when predicting performance in optics detection applications.

Optical measurements and tests of optical instruments are often performed through an opened window or from the roof of an elevated building. This can also be a common situation for free-space optical (FSO) communication systems. Wind friction in combination with solar heating of the wall and the ground will create increased turbulence in a boundary layer close to the wall. For an outgoing laser beam this thin region of strong turbulence causes beam wander, beam broadening and beam break-up. For imaging and detection systems angle of arrival fluctuations and image blurring may result. In an attempt to estimate the strength of the atmospheric turbulence in the layer at the wall the refractive index structure constant ( C n 2 ) was measured with an ultra sonic anemometer as a function of distance from the wall. The measurements were performed at the lower part of a window that was open just enough to give space for the anemometer. The window was placed 10 m above ground in a 12 m high building, with brick wall below the window and wooden panel above the window. Measurements of the turbulence as a function of distance from the wall were performed during different times of the day to study the influence of sun heating of the wall. The measured average C n 2 shows an exponentially decreasing function of distance from the wall. The exponential decay of C n 2 depends on the time of the day. The highest measured value of C n 2 was approximately 3x10 -11 m -2/3 near the wall. The influence of wall turbulence is discussed with respect to its influence on laser beam propagation.

Laser beam propagation through adverse turbulent environments such as the region close to a jet engine exhaust need to be studied in order to predict performance degradations on airborne laser systems. The turbulent plume region may introduce severe perturbations which accumulate and cause beam degradation in terms of beam wander, intensity scintillations and beam broadening at longer ranges. Applications of interest with respect to laser beam propagation in jet engine plume environments include e.g. directed infrared countermeasures (DIRCM) and active imaging. By characterising and evaluating the perturbation effects schemes for compensation or avoiding performance degradation can be devised. The turbulence effects in the plume region occur by mixing of hot exhaust flow from the jet engine with surrounding ambient air causing spatial and temporal fluctuations in the refractive index. In comparison to atmospheric turbulence considerably shorter outer- and inner scales have been observed. Typical values of the structure constant within the plume region range from 10-10 to 10-9 m-2/3 making the turbulence several order in magnitude stronger in contrast to propagation through the atmosphere. Of importance in characterisation of the jet engine plume with respect to laser beam propagation are turbulent length scales, the extent of the turbid region, variation of the structure constant and temporal flow properties. In this paper reported experimental results and modelling approaches aimed for predicting laser beam propagation degradation in jet engine plume regions are reviewed. The results will be discussed in perspective of system performance.

Efficient laser sources in the 3 - 5 μm wavelength range are needed for directed infrared countermeasures, but also have applications in remote-sensing, medicine and spectroscopy. We present new results on our tandem optical parametric oscillator (OPO) scheme for converting the radiation from a 1.06 μm Nd3+-laser to the mid-infrared. Multi Watt level output power in the 3-5 μm range at 20 kHz pulse repetition frequency is reported. Our setup uses a type I quasi phase-matched PPKTP crystal in a near degenerate OPO to generate 2.13 μm radiation. A volume Bragg grating resonant close to, but not exactly at the degenerate wavelength, is used as a cavity mirror to reduce the bandwidth and ensure singly resonant operation. Both signal and idler from the PPKTP OPO are used to pump a ZGP OPO generating high power radiation in the 3-5 μm region. Using this scheme for each pump photon it is possible to generate four photons for each pump photon, all in the interesting wavelength range, thus enabling high efficiency conversion.

Airplane based laser systems for DIRCM, active imaging and communication are important applications attracting considerable interest. The performance of these systems in directions where the laser beam points close to or through the exhaust plume from the jet engines may be severely reduced. A trial to study these phenomena using a downscaled jet-engine test rig was carried out. The results on propagation of laser beams along and across the plume from these trials are presented. For laser beams propagation along the engine axis an OPO based source producing co-propagating laser beams at 1.52 and 3.56 μm was used. The beams were projected on a screen and imaged with separate IR cameras to study beam wander and spot degradation. Propagation across the plume was studied with a 532 nm laser projected on a screen and imaged by a high speed camera. The engine thrust and the distance between the engine nozzle and the laser beams were varied to study the effects of changing conditions. Scaling to full size engines and performance implications for DIRCM is discussed.

Range profiling with high resolution and accuracy can be accomplished using single-photon counting time-of-flight techniques. Detection of target surfaces with high resolution is of importance for several remote sensing applications. The use of laser pulses in the picosecond regime, single-photon avalanche photodiodes and acquisition electronics with high timing resolution provides the tools for improving the range accuracy. This paper gives examples of measured surface profiles and compares the results with simplified theoretical models. The results are discussed with respect to some applications.

Efficient laser sources in the 3 - 5 μm wavelength range are needed for directed infrared countermeasures, but also have applications in remote sensing, medicine and spectroscopy. We present result ...

Optical range profiling with high resolution can be accomplished using single-photon counting time-of-flight techniques. Detection of optical surfaces with high resolution is of importance for several remote sensing applications. The use of laser pulses in the picosecond regime, single-photon detectors and acquisition electronics with high timing resolution provides the tools for improving the range accuracy. In this work a system based on time-of-flight range profiling using time-correlated single-photon counting techniques is described. The system is intended to be used for optical range profiling in field experiments. Experimental results from measurements on test targets are presented. Schemes for extraction of range information from the experimental temporal profile and results from performance modelling are briefly discussed.

An optical communication link with a modulated retro-reflector in a cat's eye optics arrangement has been evaluated. A transmissive multiple quantum well modulator with a modulation bandwidth in excess of 10 MHz was placed in a wide field-of-view cat's eye optic system. A laser transceiver with one line and one broadband source around 1550 nm was used to interrogate the modulated retro-reflector and detect the reflected and modulated signal. Multi-level digital encoding was evaluated as a way to increase the information transfer rate in conditions with relatively high signal-to-noise ratio. The links were evaluated in indoor as well as outdoor conditions.

Atmospheric turbulence can significantly degrade the performance of free-space optical communication links. Beam wander, intensity scintillations, beam broadening and angle of arrival fluctuations give rise to signal fading with communication channel drop-outs. In this work the performance of the potentially beneficial combination of a retro reflective link operating at 1535 nm in conjunction with a single-photon quantum key distribution link at 850 nm was studied. The general idea is that the weak light beam of the quantum channel can be steered and controlled by the 1535 nm signal. A dual-channel laser unit, with output beams at 850 and 1535 nm, was used to characterise turbulence effects along an atmospheric path close above ground. The laser beams were retro reflected from a corner cube and detected in the same laser unit. The 1535 nm beam was monitored with a position sensitive detector while the 850 nm beam (low intensity channel) was aligned with the 1535 nm beam and detected separately but along the same optical axis of the laser unit. Effects of beam wander, angular fluctuations and intensity scintillations were studied experimentally at different turbulence strengths and weather conditions. The experimental results are discussed with respect to theoretical models.

An increasing interest in lasers placed on aircrafts for active countermeasures and active imaging is observed. There remain unsolved issues regarding the propagation effects close to the jet engine exhaust and the possibilities of compensating them with adaptive optics. Laser beam propagation experiments parallel to the exhaust of a downscaled jet engine test rig have been performed. The experiments were carried out with nanosecond laser pulses at 1.6 and 3.5 μm wavelength. The laser spots were projected on a screen and the centroid motion were imaged by cameras. Root mean square magnitudes of the beam wander between 50 and 150 μrad were observed for different engine conditions and geometries. The 3.5 μm system had a frame rate of 607 Hz and could partly resolve the time variation of the beam wander. A correlation time (50 %) of 3.5 ms was observed for the beam wander. Deflections of several hundred μrad due to the average gradients in temperature and pressure were also found when the engine was turned on. In addition to beam wander intensity scintillations has been studied.

Atmospheric propagation experiments for active and passive EO systems were performed over a 2 and 8 km path. Single and double path propagation effects were studied using retroreflectors and hot point targets. The systems used include laser systems at 1.5 and 3.5 μm wavelength as well as imaging systems in the visible, 1-2 and 8-9 μm regions. A scintillometer operating at 0.8 μm wavelength was also used for the shorter path. Experimental data will be presented and evaluated concerning statistics. The results will be discussed mainly from a laser countermeasure point of view.

Atmospheric propagation degradation effects including attenuation, aerosol scattering and turbulence have a great impact on the performance of optical systems. Relevant military optical systems include active and passive imaging for target recognition, free-space optical communication and DIRCM/EOCM. This paper will report on experimental work including measurement of retro signals at 1.5 and in the 3-5 μm wavelength regions for evaluation of retro communication links and DIRCM performance. Imaging experiments using a range-gated system both in the active and passive mode at 1.5 μm, will also be carried along the same paths. A dedicated target box and test targets have been fabricated for mounting on a mast at 8 km from our laboratory. The box contains reflectors and receivers in different slots each of which can be opened by a telephone call. A heated target on top simulates a point target in the IR region. The test targets are aimed for the range-gated imaging system. Preliminary experimental data will be presented and discussed.

Retro-reflective optical communication was investigated in field trials set up in urban and maritime environments. A 1550 nm laser transceiver with an output power ranging from 1 mW to 2 W and liquid crystal polarisation modulators in conjunction with corner cube reflectors were used in different experimental arrangements. The emphasis in this work was on system performance issues in tactical application such as the effects of platform vibrations and beam distortion induced by the atmospheric turbulence. In particular, the conditions for counteraction of communication interrupts, caused by line of sight jitter, using a dynamic tip-tilt mirror in the laser transceiver were tested. We report on the results from field trials wherein these issues have been addressed.

Understanding and predicting laser beam propagation effects in the atmosphere is of importance for laser countermeasures and related applications. Turbulence effects cause beam wander, beam broadening and intensity scintillations reducing e.g. the power in bucket and the tracking accuracy. Modelling laser beam propagation in turbulence using successive phase screens provides an efficient tool for performance predictions. In this work phase screens are used to model laser beam propagation over land and sea. Different phase screens generators utilising the Kolmogorov or von Karman spectra were considered. Critical parameters using phase screens include the number of screen applied along the propagation path, inner- and outer scale size, variations in the structure parameter and spatial frequencies. Effects such as beam wander, angle-of-arrival fluctuations and intensity scintillations are discussed. The simulated results are compared with experimental data recorded at different ranges, various turbulence strengths and for single- and double paths. A generic example describing laser countermeasure against an infrared homing missile in a naval scenario is presented.

A numeric model has been developed to identify the critical components and parameters in improving the output beam quality of a flashlamp pumped Q-switched Nd:YAG laser with a folded Porro-prism resonator and polarization output coupling. The heating of the laser material and accompanying thermo-optical effects are calculated using the finite element partial differential equations package FEMLAB allowing arbitrary geometries and time distributions. The laser gain and the cavity are modeled with the physical optics simulation code GLAD including effects such as gain profile, thermal lensing and stress-induced birefringence, the Pockels cell rise-time and component aberrations. The model is intended to optimize the pumping process of an OPO providing radiation to be used for ranging, imaging or optical countermeasures.

This paper will describe single and double path laser link measurements over land and sea. The laser system consisted of a CO2 laser, a pointing and tracking head, a quadrant laser receiver, a 3-5 μm IR-camera, a TV camera and a laser range finder. For the naval scenario the laser system was placed in a building 18 m above water and corner cube targets and a single path receiver were placed on islands at 2.5, 5.5 and 16.5 km. For the land scenario the laser system was placed in a building about 13 meters above ground looking at targets and a single path receiver at 2 km range. Together with the laser registrations, separate instruments such as a scintillometer and a weather station were recording the meteorological parameters. The analysis contains evaluation of temporal and amplitude signal distributions, probability and mean time of fade and tracking performance. Results from single ended and double ended paths will be compared. Different ways of using this database for turbulence simulation and laser system performance predictions also in other wavelength regions will be discussed as well as the impact on applications including laser imaging, free-space laser communications and directed infrared countermeasures.© (2005) COPYRIGHT SPIE--The International Society for Optical Engineering. Downloading of the abstract is permitted for personal use only.

Laser beam propagation in severe environment such as a jet engine exhaust may influence performance of e.g. laser countermeasure and active imaging systems located on airborne platforms. Beam propagation in close vicinity to the engine plume causes performance degradation due to beam wander and beam broadening effects. In this study beam propagation effects were studied experimentally using a downscaled jet engine. Beam wander and broadening effects were studied directing a 1.55 μm laser beam parallel to the jet exhaust. The beam centroid motion increased significantly during onset of the engine. Perturbation effects were registered imaging a blackbody source using a fast infrared camera. The geometrical set-up and thrusts were altered during the experimental registrations to examine various flow conditions. A comparison of experimental results with simplified theoretical models describing propagation close to jet engine plumes will be presented. Limitations in existing models will be discussed and methods for refinements proposed.

Retrocommunication is a new technique for asymmetric free-space optical communication that has attracted interest during recent years. Novel technologies such as multiple quantum well (MQW) optical modulators and non-mechanical laser beam steering and tracking have been studied for implementation in a retrocommunication link. Large and small aperture reflective AlGaAs/GaAs MQW modulators were optimised and fabricated. The modulators exhibit high contrast ratios (from 5 to 100) and high modulation rates (up to 16 Mbit/s). A retroreceiver consisting of four large aperture MQW modulators, associated optics and drive electronics was fabricated. Nematic liquid crystal spatial light modulators have been evaluated, characterised for beam steering and tracking and implemented in a transceiver. Small area MQW modulators, used in focal plane configurations, were studied for static communication links. Results from a novel retrocommunication link utilising a retroreceiver and non-mechanical laser beam steering and tracking will be presented. Bit rates of 8 Mbit/s were observed during non-mechanical tracking of a moving retroreceiver over 100 m range. The demonstrator system was capable of transferring audio-, real-time images or bit streams. The demonstrated principles show promising features for future low weight free-space communication links. Performance calculations including requirements for a retrocommunication link using MQW modulators and non-mechanical beam steering are discussed.

Small target detection and tracking are important for laser systems in many applications such as Directed Infrared Countermeasures (DIRCM), fire control, target recognition and free-space laser communication. In order to evaluateperformance of these applications in a marine environment we have performed laser propagation studies over the BalticSea during May to October 2003.The laser system consisted of a CO2 laser, a pointing and tracking head, a quadrant laser receiver, a TV and 3-5 im IRcamera and a laser range finder. The laser system was placed in a building 1 8 m above water and corner cube targets and separate receivers were placed on islands at 2.5, 5.5 and 17 km range. Together with the laser registration, separate instruments such as a scintillometer and a weather station were recording the meteorological parameters. From the received signals irradiance fluctuation parameters for different beam offsets relative to the beam centre, temporal and amplitude signal distributions, probability and mean time of fade were derived. Results from single-anddouble-ended paths will be compared. The results will be discussed in relation to theoretical modelling and evaluated inview ofsome system aspects.

A commercial linear one-dimensional, 1x4096 pixels, zero-twist nematic liquid crystal spatial light modulator (SLM), giving more than 2π phase modulation at λ = 850 nm, was evaluated for beam steering applications. The large ratio (7:1) between the liquid crystal layer thickness and pixel width gives rise to voltage leakage and fringing fields between pixels. Due to the fringing fields the ideal calculated phase patterns cannot be perfectly realized by the device. Losses in high frequency components in the phase patterns were found to limit the maximum deflection angle. The inhomogeneous optical anisotropy of the SLM was determined by modelling of the liquid crystal director distribution within the electrode-pixel structure. The effects of the fringing fields on the amplitude and phase modulation were studied by full vector finite-difference time-domain simulations. It was found that the fringing fields also resulted in coupling into an unwanted polarization mode. Measurements of how this mode coupling affects the beam steering quality were carried out and the results compared with calculated results. A method to compensate for the fringing field effects is discussed and it is shown how the usable steering range of the SLM can be extended to ± 2 degrees.

A linear one-dimensional, 1x4096 pixel, zero-twist nematic liquid crystal spatial light modulator (SLM) was evaluated for laser beam steering and tracking applications. The commercially obtained SLM is designed to operate at, λ = 850 nm, allowing more than 2 π phase modulation. Due to voltage leakage the phase modulation experienced by the wave front differed from the ideal calculated phase patterns. This cross talk between pixels reduces the diffraction efficiency. Different methods developed to compensate for this effect are presented. The usable steering range of the SLM was extended to ± 2 degrees using improved phase patterns. A simple model was developed to simulate the optical effects of the voltage leakage. Preliminary tracking experiments were carried out in a laboratory set-up using a moving corner cube retro reflector. The beam steering SLM was implemented in a transceiver for free-space optical communication. Initial results using the transceiver up to 180 m range are presented.

We present design and fabrication methods for surface normal monolithic amplitude modulators with anaperture up to 14 x 14 mm 2 , a contrast ratio of 6:1 and for low driving voltages ( 8 V). The modulatorsconsist of undoped GaAs/AlGaAs quantum wells embedded in a Fabry-Perot (FP) resonance cavity grownby MOVPE. To improve the device performance the FP cavity, the period and thickness of the quantumwell and doping concentration were optimised. Also, the dimension of the modulator were varied from0.5 x 0.5 to 14 x 14 mm 2 . The results show that the yield of the modulators increases significantly whendecreasing the size of the modulators. To remedy the low yield issue for wide aperture modulator, apixelated approach was used to divide the mono pixel in a monolithic modulator into several pixels, forexample from 4 to 48. The modulation speed of the modulators with different dimensions was characterisedby electro-optic (EO) response measurements. The temporal optical response of the large modulators wassatisfactory up to the order of MHz modulation frequency where the RC constant limited the performance.A few of the modulators with wide apertures are to be assembled into an optical link system for free-spacecommunication.Key words: GaAs/AlGaAs quantum wells, electro-optic modulator, free-space optical communication.