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The impact of lithological heterogeneities on deformation, fluid flow and ore deposition is discussed based on the example of the Lavrion low-angle detachment partly accommodating gravitational collapse of the Hellenides orogenic belt in Greece. The Lavrion peninsula is characterised by a multiphase Pb-Zn-Fe-Cu-Ag ore system with a probable pre-concentration before subduction followed by progressive remobilisation and deposition coeval with the development of a low-angle ductile to brittle shear zone. The mylonitic marble below the detachment shear zone is composed of white layers of pure marble alternating with blue layers containing impurities (SiO 2 , Al 2 O 3 , carbonaceous material). Ductile mylonitic deformation is more pervasive in the less competent impure blue marble. We propose that localised deformation in the impure marble is associated with fluid circulation and dolomitisation, which in turn causes an increase in competence of these layers. Mineralised cataclastic zones, crosscutting the mylonitic fabric, are preferentially localised in the more competent dolomitic layers. Oxygen and carbon isotopic signatures of marble invaded by carbonate replacement deposits during ductile to ductile-brittle deformation are consistent with decarbonation coeval with the invasion of magmatic fluids. Mineralised cataclastic zones reflecting brittle deformation evolve from low 13 C to low 18 O signatures, interpreted as local interaction with carbonaceous material that trends toward the contribution of a surface-derived fluid. These features indicate that the Lavrion area records a complex deposition history influenced by the evolution of fluid reservoirs induced by the thermal and mechanical evolution of the marble nappe stack. Ore remobilisation and deposition associated with the activity of the low-angle detachment is (i) firstly related to the intrusion of the Plaka granodiorite leading to porphyry-type and carbonate replacement mineralisation during ductile-brittle deformation and (ii) then marked by progressive penetration of surface-derived fluids guided by strain localisation in the more competent levels leading to epithermal mineralisation associated with brittle deformation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Paleostress variations and microstructural imprints of a subducted carbonate slab record changes in mechanical strength during its exhumation. The slab studied here forms part of the high-P Samaná Terrane located on the north-eastern margin of the Hispaniola Island. Cold-cathodoluminescence images reveal relict cataclastic fabrics within the highest-pressure marbles of the Punta Balandra and Santa Bárbara Schists structural units, formed in the early stages of exhumation at P-T conditions ca. 2.0 GPa − 500 °C. Cataclastic flow was triggered after a moderate increase of water content (1.2% < w.t. H 2 O < 1.8%). Accordingly, grain sizes larger than equivalent radius r i = 40 μm preserve distribution of power law type with fractal dimensions D 2 = 2.43 in Punta Balandra unit and D 2 = 2.72 in Santa Bárbara unit. After cataclastic flow, the stress dropped and grain comminution conducted the marbles to the dissolution-precipitation domain. Then, as exhumation progressed, the effective stress increased and calcite intracrystalline plasticity process dominated. Calcite-twinning incidence and recrystallized grain-size indicate maximum paleostress ca. 350 MPa and mean flow paleostress ≈ 130 MPa. SEM-EBSD analyses show similar weak type- c calcite fabrics in all high-P carbonate units, even though they record different metamorphic P peak. Therefore, intracrystalline plasticity was probably dominant during the development of the final tectonic fabric. Finer grain-size distributions are out of fractal range, with D 1 < 1, because of the further superposed deformation. Most of the data are consistent with an initial forced exhumation model of the carbonate slab in a brittle-ductile rheology of the confined plate interface. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Cataclastic bands with intense cataclasis formed in phyllosilicate- and clay-rich poorly lithified sandstone have been identified and characterized for the first time. This study indicates that intense cataclasis could occur at shallow burial depth regardless of mineralogy of the rock at the time of deformation. The study was performed on a series of listric normal faults (displacement up to 10 m) in the Aghione Formation at Aleria Basin, Corsica, France. In-situ measurements of permeability show a reduction in permeability up to two orders of magnitude in the damage zone (cataclastic bands), while permeability increases along the slip surfaces. The slip surfaces make conduits to fluid flow, which is also confirmed by the field observations. The permeability and porosity decrease within cataclastic bands is in agreement with an increase in P-wave velocity measured on the band possibly due to compaction, introducing anisotropy to the rock. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In this study three different sites along the ENE-trending, sinistral Salzach–Ennstal–Mariazell–Puchberg [SEMP] fault zone were investigated with respect to brittle fault zone evolution and fault re-activation. All sites crop out in Triassic carbonates (Ladinian Wetterstein limestone/–dolomite). Simultaneously (re-) activated faults were investigated with focus on fault-slip data and structural inventory of each individual fault zone. Configuration of (internal) structural elements, fault core thickness, strike direction and slip sense in addition to particle analysis of fault core cataclasites add up to three different fault types (Fault Types I, II and III). Fault Type I is classified by a complex internal fault core structure with thicknesses up to several 10s of meters and generally evolve in a strike direction of maximum shear stress (τmax). Type II faults, characterized by cataclastic fault cores with thicknesses up to 1m, as well as Type III faults (thin solitary cataclastic layers) evolve sub-parallel to the main fault direction and in orientation according to R, R' or X shear fractures with variable (σn/τ) ratio. Progressive development from Type III to Type II and Type I faults is consistent with increasing displacement and increasing fault core width. Fault type classification and related paleostress analysis provide evidence from field observation compared to theoretical and analog models of Mohr–Coulomb fracture evolution. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The internal structure of the Median Tectonic Line (MTL) fault zone and the processes that prevailed at depths are described based on an analysis of a borehole. The fault plane which defines the boundary between the Ryoke- and Sanbagawa-derived rocks dips at 56° to the north. Immediately beneath the boundary, approximately 40m thick fractured rocks form the major strand of the MTL fault zone. The hanging wall above the boundary comprises variably deformed Ryoke granitoids, including several mylonite zones and cataclasite zones. The fault zone has evolved through a series of faulting events under temperatures ranging from 400 to 200°C. The mineral assemblages of the mylonites and cataclasites immediately above the boundary indicate that these fault rocks were formed at temperatures of about 300°C. These mylonites and cataclasites represent, therefore, fault rocks that formed immediately below and above the brittle–plastic transition, respectively. Development of dissolution seams in these cataclasites suggests that the cataclasite has low strength. The presence of pseudotachylytes in the cataclasite indicates the occurrence of seismicity immediately above the brittle–plastic transition. On the other hand, the very fine grain size of recrystallised quartz in the mylonites indicates high differential stress immediately below the brittle–plastic transition. It is therefore likely that the differential stresses immediately below the brittle–plastic transition are much higher than those immediately above the transition. Formation of laumontite in the major strand of the MTL fault zone occurred at temperatures of around 200°C. The central slip zone of the major strand is about 30-cm thick, and is surrounded by thick gouge zones. This situation is favourable for thermal pressurisation during earthquake slips. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: In the Sub-Pelagonian and Pelagonian Zones, kinematic analyses on faults and cataclastic shear zones document an overall displacement vector towards NNW and WSW/SSW for Attica and western Macedonia, respectively. This tectonic episode is interpreted as being triggered by the kinematically Oligocene–Miocene detachment of the Sub-Pelagonian and Pelagonian Zones from the high-P rocks. During this episode the Sub-Pelagonian and Pelagonian Zones were decoupled along detachment zones, fragmentised by brittle mechanisms and horizontally stretched in km-scale. The strain record of the cataclastically-deformed lithologies of the upper plates reveals a complex kinematic pattern with displacement partitioning in an overall non-coaxial regime. These structural processes are considered to be kinematically linked to the exhumation of the high-P rocks, deforming the Sub-Pelagonian and Pelagonian Zones. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Field observations and interpretations of satellite images reveal that the westernmost segment of the Altyn Tagh Fault (called Karakax Fault Zone) striking WNW located in the northwestern margin of the Tibetan Plateau has distinctive geomorphic and tectonic features indicative of right-lateral strike-slip fault in the Late Quaternary. South-flowing gullies and N–S-trending ridges are systematically deflected and offset by up to ~1250 m, and Late Pleistocene–Holocene alluvial fans and small gullies that incise south-sloping fans record dextral offset up to ~150 m along the fault zone. Fault scarps developed on alluvial fans vary in height from 1 to 24 m. Riedel composite fabrics of foliated cataclastic rocks including cataclasite and fault gouge developed in the shear zone indicate a principal right-lateral shear sense with a thrust component. Based on offset Late Quaternary alluvial fans, 14C ages and composite fabrics of cataclastic fault rocks, it is inferred that the average right-lateral strike-slip rate along the Karakax Fault Zone is ~9 mm/a in the Late Quaternary, with a vertical component of ~2 mm/a, and that a M 7.5 morphogenic earthquake occurred along this fault in 1902. We suggest that right-lateral slip in the Late Quaternary along the WNW-trending Karakax Fault Zone is caused by escape tectonics that accommodate north–south shortening of the western Tibetan Plateau due to ongoing northward penetration of the Indian plate into the Eurasian plate. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: To assess the role of the fault thickness on its mechanical behavior, we first present the results of an experimental modeling of a thick fault core. Our laboratory setup consists in an annular simple shear apparatus in which we can apply very large shear displacements (50 m) to 100 particle thick granular samples. Thanks to a window in the apparatus, pictures of the microstructures can be continuously taken during shear. We observe from a Correlation Image Velocimetry technique that a significant strain field exists outside of the observable shear band. This strain field, though of small magnitude compared to that existing inside the shear band, is very structured and extends in a region much wider than expected from individual static observations (i.e. wider than the directly observable shear band). Moreover, this strain field controls most of the evolution of the shear strength of the fault. We then propose plausible comparisons of our experimental results to geological observations of fault cores in the region of Aigion (Corinth Gulf, Greece). The studied faults indeed display spectacular indurated fault planes lying on weakly cohesive material. Signatures of cementation, clay mineral distribution and porosity profile of one of the studied fault cores are included and discussed in the light of the experimental results. Our observations suggest that the maximum shear strain during earthquakes might occur not in the center, but on the border of the fault cores. It is presumably localized in a transition zone which exhibits a significant cementation owing to a process of mechanical smearing by fine particles. This zone may also act as a very low permeability layer responsible for a channeling of the fluid flow. Such a scheme of progressive multi sub-localizations, is different from classical descriptions of faults and consistent with a layering of the core consisting of separated zones of high strains or large cataclastic flows. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We present particle size data from 31 samples of carbonate cataclastic rocks collected across the 26 m thick fault core of the Mattinata Fault in the foreland of the Southern Apennines, Italy. Particle size distributions of incoherent samples were determined by a sieving-and-weighting technique. The number of weight-equivalent spherical particles by size is well fitted by a power-law function on a log–log space. Fractal dimensions (D) of particle size distributions are in the 2.091–2.932 range and cluster around the value of ∼2.5. High D-values pertain to gouge in shear bands reworking the bulk cataclastic rocks of the fault core. Low D-values characterise immature cataclastic breccias. Intermediate D-values are typical of the bulk fault core. Analysis of the ratio between corresponding equivalent particle numbers from differently evolved cataclastic rocks indicates that the development of particle size distributions with D>2.6–2.7 occurred by a preferential relative increase of fine particles rather than a selective decrement of coarse particles. This preferentially occurred in shear bands where intense comminution enhanced by slip localisation progressed by rolling of coarse particles whose consequent smoothing produced a large number of fine particles. Our data suggest that during the progression of cataclasis, the fragmentation mode changed from the Allègre et al.''s [Nature 297 (1982) 47] “pillar of strength” mechanism in the early evolutionary stages, to the Sammis et al.''s [Pure and Applied Geophysics 125 (1987) 777] “constrained comminution” mechanism in the subsequent stages of cataclasis. Eventually, localised shear bands developed mainly by abrasion of coarse particles. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

We report the results of permeability measurements of fault gouge and tonalitic cataclasite from the fault zone of the Median Tectonic Line, Ohshika, central Japan, carried out during triaxial compression tests. The experiments revealed marked effects of deformation on the permeability of the specimens. Permeability of fault gouge decreases rapidly by about two orders of magnitude during initial loading and continues to decrease slowly during further inelastic deformation. The drop in permeability during initial loading is much smaller for cataclasite than for gouge, followed by abrupt increase upon failure, and the overall change in permeability correlates well with change in volumetric strain, i.e., initial, nearly elastic contraction followed by dilatancy upon the initiation of inelastic deformation towards specimen failure. If cemented cataclasite suffers deformation prior to or during an earthquake, a cataclasite zone may change into a conduit for fluid flow. Fault gouge zones, however, are unlikely to switch to very permeable zones upon the initiation of fault slip. Thus, overall permeability structure of a fault may change abruptly prior to or during earthquakes and during the interseismic period. Fault gouge and cataclasite have internal angles of friction of about 36° and 45°, respectively, as is typical for brittle rocks. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Whilst faulting in the shallow crust is inevitably associated with comminution of rocks, the mechanical properties of the comminuted granular materials themselves affect the slip behavior of faults. Therefore, the mechanical behavior of any fault progresses along an evolutionary path. We analyzed granular fault rocks from four faults, and deduced an evolutionary trend of fractal size frequency. Comminution of fault rocks starts at a fractal dimension close to 1.5 (2-D measurement), at which a given grain is supported by the maximum number of grains attainable and hence is at its strongest. As comminution proceeds, the fractal dimension increases, and hence comminution itself is a slip weakening mechanism. Under the appropriate conditions, comminuted granular materials may be fluidized during seismic slip events. In this paper, we develop a new method to identify the granular fault rocks that have experienced fluidization, where the detection probability of fragmented counterparts is a key parameter. This method was applied to four fault rock samples and a successful result was obtained. Knowledge from powder technology teaches us that the volume fraction of grains normalized by maximum volume fraction attainable is the most important parameter for dynamic properties of granular materials, and once granular fault materials are fluidized, the fault plane becomes nearly frictionless. A small decrease in the normalized volume fraction of grains from 1 is a necessary condition for the phase transition to fluidization from the deformation mechanism governed by grain friction and crushing by contact stresses. This condition can be realized only when shearing proceeds under unconstrained conditions, and this demands that the gap between fault walls is widened. Normal interface vibration proposed by Brune et al. [Tectonophysics 218 (1993) 59] appears to be the most appropriate cause of this, and we presented two lines of field evidence that support this mechanism to work in nature. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]