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Mammalian cytochrome c (Cytc) plays a key role in cellular life and death decisions, functioning as an electron carrier in the electron transport chain and as a trigger of apoptosis when released from the mitochondria. However, its regulation is not well understood. We show that the major fraction of Cytc isolated from kidneys is phosphorylated on Thr28, leading to a partial inhibition of respiration in the reaction with cytochrome c oxidase. To further study the effect of Cytc phosphorylation in vitro, we generated T28E phosphomimetic Cytc, revealing superior behavior regarding protein stability and its ability to degrade reactive oxygen species compared with wild-type unphosphorylated Cytc. Introduction of T28E phosphomimetic Cytc into Cytc knock-out cells shows that intact cell respiration, mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm), and ROS levels are reduced compared with wild type. As we show by high resolution crystallography of wild-type and T28E Cytc in combination with molecular dynamics simulations, Thr28 is located at a central position near the heme crevice, the most flexible epitope of the protein apart from the N and C termini. Finally, in silico prediction and our experimental data suggest that AMP kinase, which phosphorylates Cytc on Thr28 in vitro and colocalizes with Cytc to the mitochondrial intermembrane space in the kidney, is the most likely candidate to phosphorylate Thr28 in vivo. We conclude that Cytc phosphorylation is mediated in a tissue-specific manner and leads to regulation of electron transport chain flux via “controlled respiration,” preventing ΔΨm hyperpolarization, a known cause of ROS and trigger of apoptosis.

It is widely accepted that overactivation of NMDA receptors, resulting in calcium overload and consequent mitochondrial dysfunction in retinal ganglion neurons, plays a significant role in promoting neurodegenerative disorders such as glaucoma. Calcium has been shown to initiate a transient hyperpolarization of the mitochondrial membrane potential triggering a burst of reactive oxygen species leading to apoptosis. Strategies that enhance cell survival signaling pathways aimed at preventing this adverse hyperpolarization of the mitochondrial membrane potential may provide a novel therapeutic intervention in retinal disease. In the retina, brain-derived neurotrophic factor has been shown to be neuroprotective, and our group previously reported a PSD-95/PDZ-binding cyclic peptide (CN2097) that augments brain-derived neurotrophic factor-induced pro-survival signaling. Here, we examined the neuroprotective properties of CN2097 using an established retinal in vivo NMDA toxicity model. CN2097 completely attenuated NMDA-induced caspase 3-dependent and -independent cell death and PARP-1 activation pathways, blocked necrosis, and fully prevented the loss of long term ganglion cell viability. Although neuroprotection was partially dependent upon CN2097 binding to the PDZ domain of PSD-95, our results show that the polyarginine-rich transport moiety C-R(7), linked to the PDZ-PSD-95-binding cyclic peptide, was sufficient to mediate short and long term protection via a mitochondrial targeting mechanism. C-R(7) localized to mitochondria and was found to reduce mitochondrial respiration, mitochondrial membrane hyperpolarization, and the generation of reactive oxygen species, promoting survival of retinal neurons.